Main menu WikipediaThe Free Encyclopedia Search Wikipedia Search Create account Log in Personal tools Main Page Talk Read View source View history Tools Appearance hide Text Small Standard Large Width Standard Wide Color (beta) Automatic Light Dark Welcome to Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia that anyone can edit. 6,873,509 articles in English From today's featured article Nadezhda Stasova Nadezhda Stasova (1822–1895) was an educator and one of the earliest leaders of the Russian women's movement. She was born into a noble and wealthy family; Tsar Alexander I of Russia was her godfather, and she received extensive private tutoring as a child. In adulthood, she dedicated herself to women's empowerment. Along with Anna Filosofova and Maria Trubnikova, she founded and led several organizations designed to promote women's cultural and economic independence, including a publishing cooperative. In a decades-long effort, they successfully pushed government officials to allow higher education for women, although continual opposition sometimes limited or even reversed their successes. Stasova eventually became the lead organizer of the Bestuzhev Courses for women in 1878, but a decade later was forced to resign under political pressure. She continued her work on women's issues right up until her death in 1895, mentoring and inspiring younger feminists. (Full article...) Recently featured: Black-throated loon24th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS KarstjägerAnna Lee Fisher ArchiveBy emailMore featured articlesAbout Did you know ... 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ArchiveStart a new articleNominate an article In the news Kasia Niewiadoma Kasia Niewiadoma In cycling, Katarzyna Niewiadoma (pictured) wins the Tour de France Femmes. Doctors strike and protests occur across India after the rape and murder of a female physician in Kolkata. Paetongtarn Shinawatra becomes Prime Minister of Thailand after Srettha Thavisin is dismissed by the Constitutional Court. The World Health Organization declares the mpox epidemic to be a global health emergency. 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Henry Edwards (b. 1827)Rufus Wilmot Griswold (d. 1857)Don Bradman (b. 1908)Ieva Simonaitytė (d. 1978) More anniversaries: August 26August 27August 28 ArchiveBy emailList of days of the year Today's featured picture Warsaw Warsaw is the capital and largest city of Poland, located on the Vistula in the east-central part of the country. It has an estimated population of 1.86 million, within a larger metropolitan area of 3.27 million residents, and it is a major cultural, political and economic hub. Warsaw originated as a small fishing town in Masovia, rising to prominence in the late 16th century when Sigismund III moved the Polish capital and his royal court from Kraków. It was the de facto capital of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth until 1795 and then the seat of Napoleon's Duchy of Warsaw. The 19th century and its Industrial Revolution brought a demographic boom. Warsaw was bombed and besieged at the start of World War II in 1939, and its infrastructure and population suffered during the systematic razing which followed the Warsaw Uprising in 1944. The modern city features many historic monuments, including the reconstructed Old Town, designated a World Heritage Site. This 2022 photograph shows an elevated view of Warsaw's Constitution Square, looking northwards down Marszałkowska Street. Photograph credit: Emptywords Recently featured: George RoperSplendid fairywrenBaryte ArchiveMore featured pictures Other areas of Wikipedia Community portal – The central hub for editors, with resources, links, tasks, and announcements. Village pump – Forum for discussions about Wikipedia itself, including policies and technical issues. Site news – Sources of news about Wikipedia and the broader Wikimedia movement. Teahouse – Ask basic questions about using or editing Wikipedia. Help desk – Ask questions about using or editing Wikipedia. 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Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaCode of ConductDevelopersStatisticsCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia FoundationPowered by MediaWiki Main menu WikipediaThe Free Encyclopedia Search Wikipedia Search Create account Log in Personal tools Contents hide (Top) Geography History Toggle History subsection Middle Ages Modern period World War II Recent history Culture Toggle Culture subsection Mazovian dialect Local cuisine Economy Tourism Main cities and towns Sports Gallery See also External links References Mazovia Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools Appearance hide From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about the Polish region. For the Polish language code page in computing, see Mazovia encoding. "Mazowsze" redirects here. For folk group, see Mazowsze (folk group). Mazovia Mazowsze Historical region Aerial view of Płock Old Town with the Cathedral Hill and pier Baroque Nieborów Palace Castle Square in Warsaw Market Square in Pułtusk From top, left to right: Aerial view of Płock Old TownNieborów PalaceCastle Square in WarsawMarket Square in Pułtusk Coat of arms of Mazovia Coat of arms Three historical Mazovian voivodeships in comparison with contemporary Polish voivodeships Three historical Mazovian voivodeships in comparison with contemporary Polish voivodeships Country Poland Time zone UTC+1 (CET) • Summer (DST) UTC+2 (CEST) Primary airports Warsaw Chopin Airport Warsaw Modlin Airport Highways Mazovia or Masovia (Polish: Mazowszeⓘ) is a historical region in mid-north-eastern Poland. It spans the North European Plain, roughly between Łódź and Białystok, with Warsaw being the unofficial capital and largest city. Throughout the centuries, Mazovia developed a separate sub-culture featuring diverse folk songs, architecture, dress and traditions different from those of other Poles. Historical Mazovia existed from the Middle Ages until the partitions of Poland and consisted of three voivodeships with the capitals in Warsaw, Płock and Rawa. The main city of the region was Płock,[1] which was even capital of Poland from 1079 to 1138; however, in Early Modern Times Płock lost its importance to Warsaw, which became the capital of Poland. From 1138, Mazovia was governed by a separate branch of the Piast dynasty[citation needed] and when the last ruler of the independent Duchy of Mazovia died, it was fully incorporated to the Polish Crown in 1526. During the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth over 20% of Mazovian population was categorized as petty nobility. Between 1816 and 1844, the Mazovian Governorate was established, which encompassed the south of the region along with Łęczyca Land and south-eastern Kuyavia. The former inhabitants of Mazovia are the Masurians, who since the Late Middle Ages settled in neighboring southern Prussia, a region later called Masuria, where they converted to Protestantism in the Reformation era, thus leaving Catholicism, to which their relatives from Mazovia still adhered. The borders of contemporary Mazovian Voivodeship (province), which was created in 1999, do not exactly reflect the original size of Mazovia, as they do not include the historically Mazovian cities of Łomża and Łowicz, but include the historically Lesser Polish cities of Radom and Siedlce. Geography Historical lands of Mazovia Mazovia has a landscape without hills (in contrast to Lesser Poland) and without lakes (in contrast to Greater Poland). It is spread over the Mazovian Lowland, on both sides of the Vistula river and its confluence with Narew and Bug. Forests (mainly coniferous) cover one-fifth of the region, with the large Kampinos Forest, Puszcza Biała and Puszcza Zielona. In the north Mazovia borders on the Masurian subregion of former Prussia, in the east on Podlachia, in the south on Lesser Poland and in the west on Greater Poland (subregions of Łęczyca Land, Kujawy and Dobrzyń Land). The area of Mazovia is 33,500 km2. It has population of 5 million (3 million of them inhabit the metropolis of Warsaw). History It has been suggested that this section be split out into another article titled History of Mazovia. (Discuss) (November 2023) Inhabited by the various Lechitic West Slavic tribes, Vistula Veneti[2][3] and with other people who had settled here such as the Wielbark people.[4] Castle of the Mazovian Dukes in Czersk, 1410 Mazovia (Mazowsze) and other historical lands of Poland against the background of modern administrative borders (names in Polish) Middle Ages The historical region of Mazovia (Mazowsze) in the beginning encompassed only the territories on the right bank of Vistula near Płock and had strong connections with Greater Poland (through Włocławek and Kruszwica). In the period of the rule of the first Polish monarchs of the Piast dynasty, Płock was one of their seats, and on the Cathedral Hill (Wzgórze Tumskie) they raised palatium. In the period 1037–1047 it was the capital of the independent, Mazovian state of Masław. Between 1079 and 1138 this city was de facto the capital of Poland. Since 1075 it has been the seat of the Diocese of Płock encompassing northern Mazovia; the south formed the archdeaconate of Czersk belonging to Poznań, and the Duchy of Łowicz was part of the Archdiocese of Gniezno (this division remained as long as until the Partitions of Poland). During the 9th century Mazovia was perhaps inhabited by the tribe of Mazovians, and it was incorporated into the Polish state in the second half of 10th century under the Piast ruler Mieszko I. As a result of the fragmentation of Poland after the death of Polish monarch Bolesław III Wrymouth, in 1138 the Duchy of Mazovia was established, and during the 12th and 13th centuries it joined temporarily various adjacent lands and endured invasions of Prussians, Yotvingians, and Ruthenians. To protect its northern section Conrad I of Mazovia called in the Teutonic Knights in 1226 and granted them the Chełmno Land as a fief. After the reunification of the Polish state by Władysław I in the early 14th century, Mazovia became its fief in 1351. In the second half of 15th century western Mazovia and in 1526/1529 the main part (with its capital in Warsaw) was incorporated into the Polish state. In the 15th century the eastern part of the region (Łomża) was settled, mainly by the yeomanry (drobna szlachta). Mazovia was considered underdeveloped in comparison with Greater Poland and Lesser Poland, with the lowest urban population. Janusz III of Masovia, Stanisław and Anna of Masovia, 1520 Tombstone of Janusz III and his brother Stanisław in St. John's Archcathedral, Warsaw Further information: Duchy of Mazovia Modern period In the Early Modern Times Mazovia was known for exporting grain, timber, and fur. It was also distinct because there was no reformation here. Mazovia was divided into three voivodeships, each of them divided into lands (Polish: ziemie, Latin: terrae), each of them divided into counties (Polish: powiaty, Latin: districtus) and all three voivodeships formed part of the larger Greater Poland Province. The Polish-Lithuanian Union of Lublin (1569) established Mazovia as the central region of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, with Warsaw rising to prominence as the seat of the state legislature (sejm). In 1596 King Sigismund III Vasa moved the Polish capital from Kraków to Warsaw. During the 17th and 18th centuries Swedish, Transylvanian, Saxon, and Russian invasions wreaked havoc on the region. In 1793 western Mazovia, and two years later the rest of the region were annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia in the Second and Third Partitions of Poland, while the south-eastern portion was annexed by Austria. In 1807 it became part of the Duchy of Warsaw. In 1815 the region was incorporated into the Congress Kingdom of Poland, which was dependent on Russia. In the 19th century Mazovia was the site of large Polish uprisings (November Uprising and January Uprising) against Russian rule. In that era pre-partition Mazovia was divided among Warsaw, Płock and Augustów (the last one replaced later by Łomża). Since 1918 Mazovia has been a part of the resurrected Poland, being roughly equivalent to the Warsaw Voivodeship. In 1920, Mazovia was invaded by Soviet Russia, but Poland secured its freedom in the victorious Battle of Warsaw. World War II Siege of Warsaw (1939) During the joint German-Soviet invasion of Poland, which started World War II in September 1939, Mazovia was invaded by the German Army, and the Einsatzgruppen IV and V followed to commit various crimes against Poles.[5] The largest massacres were committed in Zambrów, Śladów and Zakroczym, in which over 200, over 300 and around 600 Polish prisoners of war and civilians were murdered, respectively.[6][7] On 25–29 September, the Germans handed over north-eastern Mazovia with Łomża and Zambrów to the Soviet Union in accordance with the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.[8] Under German occupation, the population was subjected to mass arrests, executions, expulsions and deportations to forced labour, concentration camps and Nazi ghettos, whereas under Soviet occupation the population was subjected to mass arrests, executions, deportation to forced labour in Siberia, Central Asia and the Far North. Numerous sites were looted. The Palmiry massacres carried out by Nazi Germany in the village of Palmiry near Warsaw, were one of the largest massacres of Poles committed during the Intelligenzaktion and AB-Aktion, whereas many Poles from north-eastern Mazovia were among the victims of the Soviet-perpetrated Katyn massacre. Despite such circumstances, the Polish resistance was organized and active in the region. Following the Operation Barbarossa in 1941, Germany also occupied north-eastern Mazovia. The Warsaw Ghetto was the largest German-established Jewish ghetto in occupied Europe, and other sizeable ghettos in the region were located in Otwock, Płońsk, Łomża and Płock, with the surviving Jews eventually deported by the occupiers to the Treblinka, Auschwitz and other extermination camps during the Holocaust. In the winter of 1942–1943, the Germans buried some 300 kidnapped Polish children from another region of occupied Poland in the Łąck forests, after the children froze to death in a freight train.[9] Since 1943, the Sicherheitspolizei also carried out deportations of Poles including teenage boys from Płock and Łomża to the Stutthof concentration camp.[10] Expelled Poles from Warsaw in Pruszków following the Warsaw Uprising of 1944 Germany operated several prisoner-of-war camps, including Oflag 73, Stalag 319, Stalag 324, Stalag 333 and Stalag 368 with several subcamps, for Polish, Italian, Soviet and Romanian POWs in the region.[11] The population of Warsaw decreased sharply as a result of executions, the extermination of the city's Jews, the deaths of some 200,000 inhabitants during the Warsaw Uprising of 1944, and the deportation of the city's left-bank population following the uprising. Some 40,000–50,000 Poles were murdered in the Wola massacre alone, one of the largest massacres of Poles. Shortly after the uprising, Adolf Hitler ordered German troops to destroy the city. In 1944–1945, the region was occupied by the Soviet Red Army, and gradually restored to Poland, although with a Soviet-installed communist regime, which then stayed in power until the Fall of Communism in the 1980s. Recent history The rebuilding of the Polish capital was the main task of the postwar period.[12] The Polish resistance remained active, with one of the last Polish anti-communist partisans, Stanisław Marchewka [pl], killed by the communists in Jeziorko in 1957.[13] Particularly large anti-communist protest occurred in the region in 1976. During and following the Korean War, in 1951–1959, Poland admitted 200 North Korean orphans in Gołotczyzna and Otwock in Mazovia.[14] Those times Warsaw Voivodeship was still roughly similar to historical Mazovia and used to be informally called so, but in 1975 it was divided into several little voivodeships. However, in 1999 Mazovian Voivodeship was created as one of 16 administrative regions of Poland. Culture Folk costumes from Łowicz sub-region Mazovian dialect Further information: Mazovian dialect The Mazovian language probably existed as a separate dialect until the 20th century.[15][16][17][18][19] The ethnonym Mazur has given the name for a phonetic phenomenon known as mazurzenie (although it is common in the Lesser Polish dialect as well). Local cuisine There is no specific regional cuisine of Mazovia. Formerly, dairy foods dominated the peasant cuisine. Nobles used poultry, geese, chickens and ducks. The most separate Mazovian culinary regions are Kurpie and Łowicz, where traditional dishes survive to the present day. In Kurpie, traditional dishes are prepared with ingredients collected in the forest: berries, honey and mushrooms. There are several traditional Polish dishes like flaki (tripes), kluski (noodles and dumplings), which are prepared in different way than in other parts of Poland.[20][21] Economy Mazovian Voivodeship is ranked decidedly first in Poland according to the Gross Domestic Product.[22] This is thanks to Warsaw, which is a financial centre of East-Central Europe.[23][24] The majority of state enterprises are headquartered in this metropolis. It is a hub for both rail and vehicular traffic, with access throughout Poland and across Europe. Warsaw Chopin Airport is the nation's busiest. There are many branches of industry and services well developed in this city. The other economical center is Płock, where large petrochemical plants PKN Orlen operate. The rest of Mazovia belongs to the poorest parts of Poland. In agriculture the most typical Mazovian crops are potatoes and rye, but the most popular (as in the whole of Poland) is wheat. Others are barley, sugar beets, fruits (with their biggest Polish basin in the south of the region), and vegetables. Pigs are commonly bred, often also cows and chickens. Tourism Birthplace of Fryderyk Chopin in Żelazowa Wola Kampinos National Park is one of Poland's largest national parks and is popular with tourists making day trips from Warsaw to hike among the park's primeval forests, sand dunes, and marshland. The main cultural centre of the region, and, alongside Kraków, in all of Poland, is Warsaw, which is home to dozens of theatres, the National Philharmonic, the National Opera House, the National Library, the National Museum, Centrum Nauki Kopernik, Muzeum Powstania Warszawskiego, Temple of Divine Providence, and the Sanctuary of Blessed Jerzy Popiełuszko. Warsaw has many magnificent historic buildings and monuments, including those in the Old Town and the New Town, both of which were almost completely demolished during World War II but were meticulously restored and were designated UNESCO World Heritage sites in 1980. Several important edifices has been built at the adjacent street Krakowskie Przedmieście. There are also royal palaces and gardens of Łazienki and Wilanów. The most interesting building from post-war period is Pałac Kultury i Nauki. Masovia also boasts 11 Historic Monuments of Poland: Romanesque Czerwińsk Abbey with the Basilica of the Annunciation of Holy Virgin Mary in Czerwińsk nad Wisłą Cathedral Basilica of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary and St. Nicholas in Łowicz Baroque Nieborów Palace and park complex Wzgórze Tumskie (Cathedral Hill) with the medieval Płock Castle and Płock Cathedral, one of the burial sites of Polish monarchs Baroque Basilica of the Annunciation in Pułtusk Józef Piłsudski Museum at his former house in Sulejówek Historic city center with the Old Town, New Town, Royal Castle, Royal Route and Wilanów Palace in Warsaw Building of the Polish Ministry of National Education in Warsaw Powązki Cemetery in Warsaw Warsaw Water Filters 19th-century factory settlement in Żyrardów Historical monuments elsewhere include the manor house in Żelazowa Wola where composer Frédéric Chopin was born and his museum is located nowadays. Płock, once the seat of the Mazovian princes, and Łowicz, the residence of the archbishops of Gniezno, are noted for their cathedrals. There are also palaces and parks in Nieborów and Arkadia, the Modlin Fortress, castles in Czersk, Pułtusk, Ciechanów, Opinogóra, Rawa Mazowiecka, Sochaczew and Liw, as well as churches in Niepokalanów, Góra Kalwaria, Warka, Skierniewice, Czerwińsk, Wyszogród, Zakroczym, Szreńsk, Przasnysz, Ostrołęka, Łomża, Szczuczyn, Wizna, Brok, Zuzela, Rostkowo, and Boguszyce. Interesting folklore is found in the subregion of Kurpie; another skansen has been established in Sierpc.[25] Main cities and towns Warsaw Old Town Płock Castle Łomża Cathedral Sokół Palace in Pruszków Castle in Rawa Mazowiecka Regional museum in Ostrołęka The following table lists the cities in Mazovia with a population greater than 20,000 (2015): City Population (2015)[26] Voivodeship in 1750 Voivodeship in 2016 Additional information 1. Warsaw 1 724 404 Masovian Voivodeship Masovian Voivodeship Capital of Poland, former royal city of Poland. 2. Płock 122 815 Płock Voivodeship Masovian Voivodeship Historical capital of Masovia, former capital of Poland, former royal city of Poland. 3. Łomża 62 711 Masovian Voivodeship Podlaskie Voivodeship Former royal city of Poland. 4. Pruszków 59 570 Masovian Voivodeship Masovian Voivodeship Part of the Warsaw metropolitan area. 5. Legionowo 54 231 Masovian Voivodeship Masovian Voivodeship Part of the Warsaw metropolitan area. 6. Ostrołęka 52 917 Masovian Voivodeship Masovian Voivodeship Former royal city of Poland. 7. Skierniewice 48 634 Rawa Voivodeship Łódź Voivodeship Former private bishop town of Poland. 8. Otwock 45 044 Masovian Voivodeship Masovian Voivodeship Part of the Warsaw metropolitan area. 9. Piaseczno 44 869 Masovian Voivodeship Masovian Voivodeship Former royal city of Poland, part of the Warsaw metropolitan area. 10. Ciechanów 44 797 Masovian Voivodeship Masovian Voivodeship Former royal city of Poland. 11. Żyrardów 41 096 Rawa Voivodeship Masovian Voivodeship 12. Mińsk Mazowiecki 39 880 Masovian Voivodeship Masovian Voivodeship Part of the Warsaw metropolitan area. 13. Wołomin 37 505 Masovian Voivodeship Masovian Voivodeship Part of the Warsaw metropolitan area. 14. Sochaczew 37 480 Rawa Voivodeship Masovian Voivodeship Former royal city of Poland. 15. Ząbki 31 884 Masovian Voivodeship Masovian Voivodeship Part of the Warsaw metropolitan area. 16. Mława 30 880 Płock Voivodeship Masovian Voivodeship Former royal city of Poland. 17. Grodzisk Mazowiecki 29 907 Rawa Voivodeship Masovian Voivodeship Former private town of the Mokronoski family, part of the Warsaw metropolitan area. 18. Łowicz 29 420 Rawa Voivodeship Łódź Voivodeship Temporary de facto capital of Poland in years 1572–1573, former private bishop town. 19. Marki 29 032 Masovian Voivodeship Masovian Voivodeship Part of the Warsaw metropolitan area. 20. Nowy Dwór Mazowiecki 28 287 Masovian Voivodeship Masovian Voivodeship Former private town, part of the Warsaw metropolitan area. 21. Wyszków 27 222 Masovian Voivodeship Masovian Voivodeship Former private bishop town of Poland. 22. Piastów 22 826 Masovian Voivodeship Masovian Voivodeship Part of the Warsaw metropolitan area. 23. Ostrów Mazowiecka 22 796 Masovian Voivodeship Masovian Voivodeship Former royal city of Poland. 24. Płońsk 22 494 Płock Voivodeship Masovian Voivodeship Former royal city of Poland. 25. Zambrów 22 451 Masovian Voivodeship Podlaskie Voivodeship Former royal city of Poland. 26. Grajewo 22 246 Masovian Voivodeship Podlaskie Voivodeship Northernmost and easternmost town of Mazovia. It borders the regions of Podlachia and Masuria. 27. Kobyłka 20 855 Masovian Voivodeship Masovian Voivodeship Part of the Warsaw metropolitan area. Sports Stadion Narodowy, Warsaw Successful sports teams in Masovia include association football teams Legia Warsaw, Polonia Warsaw and Wisła Płock, basketball teams Polonia Warsaw, Legia Warsaw and Znicz Pruszków, and handball teams Wisła Płock and KS Warszawianka. Gallery Niepokalanów Niepokalanów Góra Kalwaria Góra Kalwaria Ciechanów Castle Ciechanów Castle Łowicz Cathedral Łowicz Cathedral St. Jacob Church in Skierniewice St. Jacob Church in Skierniewice See also Wikimedia Commons has media related to Masovia. Wikiquote has quotations related to Mazovia. Świdermajer – an architectural style in the area External links Look up Masovia in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Summer in Mazowsze References Mazowsze: Obraz Etnograficzny, Volume 1, by Wojciech Gerson and Oskar Kolberg, BiblioBazaar, 2009 – 372 pages Roland Steinacher: Vandalen. Rezeptions- und Wissenschaftsgeschichte. In: Hubert Cancik (Hrsg.): Der Neue Pauly, Band 15/3. Metzler, Stuttgart 2003, S. 942–946, ISBN 3-476-01489-4 Roland Steinacher: Wenden, Slawen, Vandalen. Eine frühmittelalterliche pseudologische Gleichsetzung und ihre Nachwirkungen bis ins 18. Jahrhundert. In: Walter Pohl (Hrsg.): Die Suche nach den Ursprüngen. Von der Bedeutung des frühen Mittelalters (Forschungen zur Geschichte des Mittelalters; Bd. 8). Verlag der ÖAW, Wien 2004, S. 329–353, ISBN 3-7001-3296-4. J. Piontek et al. "Odontological analysis of central european populations from the Roman period and the Early Middle Ages". Humanbiologia Budapestinensis. 30. 2007. pp. 77–86. [1] Wardzyńska, Maria (2009). Był rok 1939. Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce. Intelligenzaktion (in Polish). Warszawa: IPN. pp. 54–55. Sudoł, Tomasz (2011). "Zbrodnie Wehrmachtu na jeńcach polskich we wrześniu 1939 roku". Biuletyn Instytutu Pamięci Narodowej (in Polish). No. 8–9 (129–130). IPN. pp. 80–82. ISSN 1641-9561. Wardzyńska, p. 97 Boćkowski, Daniel (2005). Na zawsze razem. Białostocczyzna i Łomżyńskie w polityce radzieckiej w czasie II wojny światowej (IX 1939 – VIII 1944) (in Polish). Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Neriton, Instytut Historii PAN. p. 45. Kołakowski, Andrzej (2020). "Zbrodnia bez kary: eksterminacja dzieci polskich w okresie okupacji niemieckiej w latach 1939-1945". In Kostkiewicz, Janina (ed.). Zbrodnia bez kary... Eksterminacja i cierpienie polskich dzieci pod okupacją niemiecką (1939–1945) (in Polish). Kraków: Uniwersytet Jagielloński, Biblioteka Jagiellońska. p. 78. Drywa, Danuta (2020). "Germanizacja dzieci i młodzieży polskiej na Pomorzu Gdańskim z uwzględnieniem roli obozu koncentracyjnego Stutthof". In Kostkiewicz, Janina (ed.). Zbrodnia bez kary... Eksterminacja i cierpienie polskich dzieci pod okupacją niemiecką (1939–1945) (in Polish). Kraków: Uniwersytet Jagielloński, Biblioteka Jagiellońska. p. 187. Megargee, Geoffrey P.; Overmans, Rüdiger; Vogt, Wolfgang (2022). The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos 1933–1945. Volume IV. Indiana University Press, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. pp. 224, 310, 314, 328–329, 373. ISBN 978-0-253-06089-1. "Mazowieckie | province, Poland | Encyclopædia Britannica". britannica.com. Retrieved 10 April 2015. Grzegorz Makus (21 May 2017). "Ostatni z Białostocczyzny. Ppor. Stanisław Marchewka "Ryba"". Muzeum Żołnierzy Wyklętych (in Polish). Retrieved 5 November 2023. Sołtysik, Łukasz (2009). "Dzieci i młodzież północnokoreańska w Polsce w latach 1953–1954 w świetle wybranych dokumentów". Rocznik Jeleniogórski (in Polish). Vol. XLI. Jelenia Góra. p. 196. ISSN 0080-3480. "Full text of "Historya Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego: Srednie wieki i odrodzenie. Z wstepem o Uniwersytecie ..."". Retrieved 10 April 2015. Felicyan Antoni Kozłowski (1858). Dzieje Mazowsża za panowania książat. Warszawa: Nakł. i druk S. Orgelbranda. p. 504. jezyk mazowiecki. Kopernikijana czyli materyaly do pism i zycia Mikolaja Kopernika. Gniezno, Drukiem J.B. Langiego. 1873. Maciejowski, W.A. (1852). Piśmiennictwo polskie, od czasów najdawniejszych aż do roku 1830: z rękopisów i druków zebrawszy, w obrazie literatury polskiej historycznie skreślonym. Vol. 2. Nakładem i drukiem S. Orgelbranda. p. 327. Retrieved 10 April 2015. "Mitteilungen : Literarische Gesellschaft Masovia : Free Download & Streaming : Internet Archive". Retrieved 10 April 2015. Kuchnia Mazowsza i Kurpiów – Kuchnia Polska Potrawy mazowieckie – Kuron.com.pl "Mazowsze jest i będzie najbogatsze w Polsce – Analizy rynku – Forsal.pl – Giełda, Waluty, Finanse – forex, notowania NBP, surowce". forsal.pl. 3 November 2009. Retrieved 10 April 2015. Warsaw: Central Europe's Bourse to Beat – BusinessWeek Warsaw makes bid to become Central Europe’s financial hub – Taipei Times "Mazowieckie | province, Poland | Encyclopædia Britannica". britannica.com. Retrieved 10 April 2015. "Lista miast w Polsce (Spis miast, mapa miast, liczba ludności, powierzchnia, wyszukiwarka)". Authority control databases Edit this at Wikidata International VIAFWorldCat National GermanyCzech RepublicPoland Categories: MazoviaHistorical regionsHistorical regions in Poland This page was last edited on 26 August 2024, at 03:38 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 4.0; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaCode of ConductDevelopersStatisticsCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia FoundationPowered by MediaWiki Main menu WikipediaThe Free Encyclopedia Search Wikipedia Search Create account Log in Personal tools Contents hide (Top) Toponymy and names History Toggle History subsection Geography Toggle Geography subsection Cityscape Toggle Cityscape subsection Demographics Toggle Demographics subsection Government and politics Toggle Government and politics subsection Economy Toggle Economy subsection Education Transport Culture Toggle Culture subsection Sports Famous people International relations Toggle International relations subsection See also Notes References Bibliography Further reading External links Warsaw Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools Appearance hide Text Small Standard Large Width Standard Wide Color (beta) Automatic Light Dark Coordinates: 52°13′48″N 21°00′40″E From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see Warsaw (disambiguation), Warszawa (disambiguation), Warschau (disambiguation), and City of Warsaw (disambiguation). Warsaw Warszawa (Polish) Capital city and county Capital City of Warsaw Polish: miasto stołeczne Warszawa Warsaw business district from Novotel The Downtown district Royal Castle and Sigismund's Column Royal Castle and Sigismund's Column Staszic Palace and Nicolaus Copernicus Monument Nicolaus Copernicus Monument Łazienki Park Łazienki Park Main Market Square Main Market Square Wilanów Palace Wilanów Palace Flag of Warsaw Flag Coat of arms of Warsaw Coat of arms Official logo of Warsaw Brandmark Nickname: Phoenix City[1] Motto: Semper invicta (Latin "Ever invincible") MapWikimedia | © OpenStreetMap Show Warsaw Show Masovian Voivodeship Show Poland Show Europe Show all Coordinates: 52°13′48″N 21°00′40″E Country Poland Voivodeship Masovian County City county Founded 13th century City rights 1323 City Hall Commission Palace Districts 18 districts Government • Type Mayor–council government • Body Warsaw City Council • City mayor Rafał Trzaskowski (KO) • Sejm of Poland 20 members • EP Warsaw constituency Area • Capital city and county 517.24 km2 (199.71 sq mi) • Metro 6,100.43 km2 (2,355.39 sq mi) Elevation 78–116 m (328 ft) Population (2023) • Capital city and county Increase 1,863,056 (1st)[2] • Rank 1st in Poland 7th in European Union • Density 3,601/km2 (9,330/sq mi) • Metro 3,269,510[3] • Metro density 509.1/km2 (1,319/sq mi) Demonym Varsovian GDP[4][5] • Capital city and county €77.957 billion (2021) • Metro €114.436 billion (2022) Time zone UTC+1 (CET) • Summer (DST) UTC+2 (CEST) Postal code 00-001 to 04-999 Area code +48 22 City budget zł 24.368 billion (€5.4 billion)[6] International airports Chopin (WAW) Modlin (WMI) (not in Warsaw) Rapid transit system Metro Website warszawa.pl UNESCO World Heritage Site Official name Historic Centre of Warsaw Type Cultural Criteria ii, vi Designated 1980 (4th session) Reference no. 30 UNESCO region Europe Duration: 45 seconds.0:45 Varsovian Trumpet Call Warsaw,[a] officially the Capital City of Warsaw,[7][b] is the capital and largest city of Poland. The metropolis stands on the River Vistula in east-central Poland. Its population is officially estimated at 1.86 million residents within a greater metropolitan area of 3.27 million residents, which makes Warsaw the 7th most-populous city in the European Union.[2] The city area measures 517 km2 (200 sq mi) and comprises 18 districts, while the metropolitan area covers 6,100 km2 (2,355 sq mi).[8] Warsaw is classified as an alpha global city,[9] a major cultural, political and economic hub, and the country's seat of government. It is also capital of the Masovian Voivodeship. Warsaw traces its origins to a small fishing town in Masovia. The city rose to prominence in the late 16th century, when Sigismund III decided to move the Polish capital and his royal court from Kraków. Warsaw served as the de facto capital of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth until 1795, and subsequently as the seat of Napoleon's Duchy of Warsaw. The 19th century and its Industrial Revolution brought a demographic boom which made it one of the largest and most densely populated cities in Europe. Known then for its elegant architecture and boulevards, Warsaw was bombed and besieged at the start of World War II in 1939.[10][11][12] Much of the historic city was destroyed and its diverse population decimated by the Ghetto Uprising in 1943, the general Warsaw Uprising in 1944 and systematic razing. Warsaw is served by two international airports, the busiest being Warsaw Chopin as well as the smaller Warsaw Modlin intended for low-cost carriers. Major public transport services operating in the city include the Warsaw Metro, buses, commuter rail service and an extensive tram network. The city is a significant economic centre for the region, with the Warsaw Stock Exchange being the largest in Central and Eastern Europe.[13][14] It is the base for Frontex, the European Union agency for external border security, and ODIHR, one of the principal institutions of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. Warsaw has one of Europe's highest concentration of skyscrapers and the Varso Place is the tallest building in the European Union. The city's primary educational and cultural institutions comprise the University of Warsaw, the Warsaw University of Technology, the SGH Warsaw School of Economics, the Chopin University of Music, the Polish Academy of Sciences, the National Philharmonic Orchestra, the National Museum, and the Warsaw Grand Theatre, the largest of its kind in the world.[15] The reconstructed Old Town, which represents a variety of European architectural styles, was listed as a World Heritage Site in 1980.[16] Other landmarks include the Royal Castle, Sigismund's Column, the Wilanów Palace, the Palace on the Isle, St. John's Archcathedral, Main Market Square, and numerous churches and mansions along the Royal Route. Warsaw is a green capital, with around a quarter of the city's area occupied by parks.[17][18] In sports, the city is home to Legia Warsaw football club and hosts the annual Warsaw Marathon. Toponymy and names Warsaw's name in the Polish language is Warszawa. Other previous spellings of the name may have included: Warszewa, Warszowa, Worszewa or Werszewa.[19][20] The exact origin and meaning of the name is uncertain and has not been fully determined.[21][22] Originally, Warszawa was the name of a small fishing settlement on the banks of the Vistula river. One theory states that Warszawa means "belonging to Warsz", Warsz being a shortened form of the masculine Old Polish name Warcisław, which etymologically is linked with Wrocław.[23] However the ending -awa is unusual for a large city; the names of Polish cities derived from personal names usually end in -ów/owo/ew/ewo (e.g. Piotrków, Adamów). Folk etymology attributes the city name to Wars and Sawa. There are several versions of the legend with their appearance. According to one version, Sawa was a mermaid living in the Vistula with whom fisherman Wars fell in love.[24][25] The official city name in full is miasto stołeczne Warszawa ("The Capital City of Warsaw").[26] A native or resident of Warsaw is known as a Varsovian – in Polish warszawiak, warszawianin (male), warszawianka (female), warszawiacy, and warszawianie (plural). For the name of Warsaw in various languages, see wikt:Warsaw. History Main article: History of Warsaw For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Warsaw. 1300–1800 A paper engraving of 16th-century Warsaw showing St. John's Archcathedral to the right. The church was founded in 1390, and is one of the city's ancient and most important landmarks. The first fortified settlements on the site of today's Warsaw were located in Bródno (9th/10th century) and Jazdów (12th/13th century).[27] After Jazdów was raided by nearby clans and dukes, a new fortified settlement was established on the site of a small fishing village called "Warszowa". The Prince of Płock, Bolesław II of Masovia, established the modern-day city in about 1300 and the first historical document attesting to the existence of a castellany dates to 1313.[28] With the completion of St John's Cathedral in 1390, Warsaw became one of the seats of the Dukes of Masovia and was officially made capital of the Masovian Duchy in 1413.[27] The economy then predominantly rested on craftsmanship or trade, and the town housed approximately 4,500 people at the time. During the 15th century, the population migrated and spread beyond the northern city wall into a newly formed self-governing precinct called New Town. The existing older settlement became eventually known as the Old Town. Both possessed their own town charter and independent councils. The aim of establishing a separate district was to accommodate new incomers or "undesirables" who were not permitted to settle in Old Town, particularly Jews.[29] Social and financial disparities between the classes in the two precincts led to a minor revolt in 1525.[28] Following the sudden death of Janusz III and the extinction of the local ducal line, Masovia was incorporated into the Kingdom of Poland in 1526.[27] Bona Sforza, wife of Sigismund I of Poland, was widely accused of poisoning the duke to uphold Polish rule over Warsaw.[30][31] In 1529, Warsaw for the first time became the seat of a General Sejm and held that privilege permanently from 1569.[27] The city's rising importance encouraged the construction of a new set of defenses, including the landmark Barbican. Renowned Italian architects were brought to Warsaw to reshape the Royal Castle, the streets and the marketplace, resulting in the Old Town's early Italianate appearance. In 1573, the city gave its name to the Warsaw Confederation which formally established religious freedom in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Due to its central location between the capitals of the Commonwealth's two component parts, Poland and Lithuania, which were Kraków and Vilnius respectively, Warsaw became the capital of the Commonwealth and the Polish Crown when Sigismund III Vasa transferred his royal court in 1596.[27] In the subsequent years the town significantly expanded to the south and westwards. Several private independent districts (jurydyka) were the property of aristocrats and the gentry, which they ruled by their own laws. Between 1655 and 1658 the city was besieged and pillaged by the Swedish, Brandenburgian and Transylvanian forces.[27][32] The conduct of the Great Northern War (1700–1721) also forced Warsaw to pay heavy tributes to the invading armies.[33] Warsaw New Town in 1778. Painted by Bernardo Bellotto. The reign of Augustus II and Augustus III was a time of great development for Warsaw, which turned into an early-capitalist city. The Saxon monarchs employed many German architects, sculptors and engineers, who rebuilt the city in a style similar to Dresden. The year 1727 marked the opening of the Saxon Garden in Warsaw, the first publicly accessible park.[34] The Załuski Library, the first Polish public library and the largest at the time, was founded in 1747.[35] Stanisław II Augustus, who remodelled the interior of the Royal Castle, also made Warsaw a centre of culture and the arts.[36][37] He extended the Royal Baths Park and ordered the construction or refurbishment of numerous palaces, mansions and richly-decorated tenements. This earned Warsaw the nickname Paris of the North.[38] Warsaw remained the capital of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth until 1795 when it was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia in the third and final partition of Poland;[39] it subsequently became the capital of the province of South Prussia. During this time, Louis XVIII of France spent his exile in Warsaw under the pseudonym Comte de Lille.[40] 1800–1939 Water Filters, designed by William Lindley and finished in 1886 Warsaw was made the capital of a newly created French client state, known as the Duchy of Warsaw, after a portion of Poland's territory was liberated from Prussia, Russia and Austria by Napoleon in 1806.[27] Following Napoleon's defeat and exile, the 1815 Congress of Vienna assigned Warsaw to Congress Poland, a constitutional monarchy within the easternmost sector (or partition) under a personal union with Imperial Russia.[27] The Royal University of Warsaw was established in 1816. With the violation of the Polish constitution, the 1830 November Uprising broke out against foreign influence. The Polish-Russian war of 1831 ended in the uprising's defeat and in the curtailment of Congress Poland's autonomy.[27] On 27 February 1861, a Warsaw crowd protesting against Russian control over Congress Poland was fired upon by Russian troops.[41][42] Five people were killed. The Underground Polish National Government resided in Warsaw during the January Uprising in 1863–64.[42] Warsaw flourished throughout the 19th century under Mayor Sokrates Starynkiewicz (1875–92), who was appointed by Alexander III. Under Starynkiewicz Warsaw saw its first water and sewer systems designed and built by the English engineer William Lindley and his son, William Heerlein Lindley, as well as the expansion and modernisation of trams, street lighting, and gas infrastructure.[27] Between 1850 and 1882, the population grew by 134% to 383,000 as a result of rapid urbanisation and industrialisation. Many migrated from surrounding rural Masovian towns and villages to the city for employment opportunities. The western borough of Wola was transformed from an agricultural periphery occupied mostly by small farms and windmills (mills being the namesake of Wola's central neighbourhood Młynów) to an industrial and manufacturing centre.[43] Metallurgical, textile and glassware factories were commonplace, with chimneys dominating the westernmost skyline.[44] Marszałkowska Street as it appeared in 1912 Warsaw National Philharmonic in 1918 Like London, Warsaw's population was subjected to income segmentation. Gentrification of inner suburbs forced poorer residents to move across the river into Praga or Powiśle and Solec districts, similar to the East End of London and London Docklands.[45] Poorer religious and ethnic minorities, such as the Jews, settled in the crowded parts of northern Warsaw, in Muranów.[46] The Imperial Census of 1897 recorded 626,000 people living in Warsaw, making it the third-largest city of the Empire after St. Petersburg and Moscow as well as the largest city in the region.[47] Grand architectural complexes and structures were also erected in the city centre, including the Warsaw Philharmonic, the Church of the Holiest Saviour and tenements along Marszałkowska Street. During World War I, Warsaw was occupied by Germany from 4 August 1915 until November 1918. The Armistice of 11 November 1918 concluded that defeated Germany is to withdraw from all foreign areas, which included Warsaw.[48] Germany did so, and underground leader Józef Piłsudski returned to Warsaw on the same day which marked the beginning of the Second Polish Republic, the first truly sovereign Polish state after 1795. In the course of the Polish–Soviet War (1919–1921), the 1920 Battle of Warsaw was fought on the eastern outskirts of the city. Poland successfully defended the capital, stopped the brunt of the Bolshevik Red Army and temporarily halted the "export of the communist revolution" to other parts of Europe.[49] Boguslaw Herse Fashion House, a famous shopping department store during the Interwar Period The interwar period (1918–1939) was a time of major development in the city's infrastructure. New modernist housing estates were built in Mokotów to de-clutter the densely populated inner suburbs. In 1921, Warsaw's total area was estimated at only 124.7 km2 with 1 million inhabitants–over 8,000 people/km2 made Warsaw more densely populated than contemporary London.[50] The Średnicowy Bridge was constructed for railway (1921–1931), connecting both parts of the city across the Vistula. Warszawa Główna railway station (1932–1939) was not completed due to the outbreak of the Second World War. Stefan Starzyński was the Mayor of Warsaw between 1934 and 1939. Second World War After the destruction of Warsaw over 85% of the buildings lay in ruins, including the Old Town and the Royal Castle.[51] After the German Invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 started the Second World War, Warsaw was defended until 27 September. Central Poland, including Warsaw, came under the rule of the General Government, a German Nazi colonial administration. All higher education institutions were immediately closed and Warsaw's entire Jewish population – several hundred thousand, some 30% of the city – were herded into the Warsaw Ghetto.[52] In July 1942, the Jews of the Warsaw Ghetto began to be deported en masse to the Aktion Reinhard extermination camps, particularly Treblinka.[52] The city would become the centre of urban resistance to Nazi rule in occupied Europe.[53] When the order came to annihilate the ghetto as part of Hitler's "Final Solution" on 19 April 1943, Jewish fighters launched the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising.[54] Despite being heavily outgunned and outnumbered, the ghetto held out for almost a month.[54] When the fighting ended, almost all survivors were massacred, with only a few managing to escape or hide.[54][55] The Warsaw Uprising took place in 1944. The Polish Home Army attempted to liberate Warsaw from the Germans before the arrival of the Red Army.[56] By July 1944, the Red Army was deep into Polish territory and pursuing the Nazis toward Warsaw.[57] The Polish government-in-exile in London gave orders to the underground Home Army (AK) to try to seize control of Warsaw before the Red Army arrived. Thus, on 1 August 1944, as the Red Army was nearing the city, the Warsaw uprising began.[57] The armed struggle, planned to last 48 hours, was partially successful, however, it went on for 63 days. Eventually, the Home Army fighters and civilians assisting them were forced to capitulate.[57] They were transported to PoW camps in Germany, while the entire civilian population was expelled.[57] Polish civilian deaths are estimated at between 150,000 and 200,000.[58] Hitler, ignoring the agreed terms of the capitulation, ordered the entire city to be razed to the ground and the library and museum collections taken to Germany or burned.[57] Monuments and government buildings were blown up by special German troops known as Verbrennungs- und Vernichtungskommando ("Burning and Destruction Detachments").[57] About 85% of the city was destroyed, including the historic Old Town and the Royal Castle.[59] On 17 January 1945 – after the beginning of the Vistula–Oder Offensive of the Red Army – Soviet troops and Polish troops of the First Polish Army entered the ruins of Warsaw, and liberated Warsaw's suburbs from German occupation.[60] The city was swiftly freed by the Soviet Army, which rapidly advanced towards Łódź, as German forces regrouped at a more westward position. 1945–1989 St. Alexander's Church at Three Crosses Square before the war and today - many monuments were rebuilt in a changed form In 1945, after the bombings, revolts, fighting, and demolition had ended, most of Warsaw lay in ruins. The area of the former ghetto was razed to the ground, with only a sea of rubble remaining. The immense destruction prompted a temporary transfer of the new government and its officials to Łódź, which became the transitional seat of power. Nevertheless, Warsaw officially resumed its role as the capital of Poland and the country's centre of political and economic life. After World War II, the "Bricks for Warsaw" campaign was initiated and large prefabricated housing projects were erected in Warsaw to address the major housing shortage. Plattenbau-styled apartment buildings were seen as a solution to avoid Warsaw's former density problem and to create more green spaces. Some of the buildings from the 19th century that have survived in a reasonably reconstructible form were nonetheless demolished in the 1950s and 1960s, like the Kronenberg Palace.[61][62] The Śródmieście (central) region's urban system was completely reshaped; former cobblestone streets were asphalted and significantly widened for traffic use. Many notable streets such as Gęsia, Nalewki and Wielka disappeared as a result of these changes and some were split in half due to the construction of Plac Defilad (Parade Square), one of the largest of its kind in Europe.[63] Much of the central district was also designated for future skyscrapers. The 237-metre Palace of Culture and Science resembling New York's Empire State Building was built as a gift from the Soviet Union.[64] Warsaw's urban landscape is one of modern and contemporary architecture.[65] Despite wartime destruction and post-war remodelling, many of the historic streets, buildings, and churches were restored to their original form. Warsaw in 1981; the Palace of Culture and Science is visible in the background. John Paul II's visits to his native country in 1979 and 1983 brought support to the budding "Solidarity" movement and encouraged the growing anti-communist fervor there.[66] In 1979, less than a year after becoming pope, John Paul celebrated Mass in Victory Square in Warsaw and ended his sermon with a call to "renew the face" of Poland.[66] These words were meaningful for Varsovians and Poles who understood them as the incentive for liberal-democratic reforms.[66] 1989–present In 1995, the Warsaw Metro opened with a single line.[67] A second line was opened in March 2015.[68] On 28 September 2022, three new Warsaw metro stations were opened, increasing the number of Warsaw Metro stations to 36 and its length to 38.3 kilometers.[69] In February 2023, Warsaw's mayor, Rafał Trzaskowski, announced plans to more than double the size of the city's metro system by 2050.[70] With the entry of Poland into the European Union in 2004,[71] Warsaw is experiencing the large economic boom.[72] The opening fixture of UEFA Euro 2012 took place in Warsaw[73] and the city also hosted the 2013 United Nations Climate Change Conference[74] and the 2016 NATO Summit.[75] As of August 2022, Warsaw had received around 180,000 refugees from Ukraine, because of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. The amount means a tenth of the Polish capital's population of 1.8 million — the second-largest single group of Ukrainian refugees.[76] Geography Location and topography Warsaw, as seen from the ESA Sentinel-2 Warsaw lies in east-central Poland about 300 km (190 mi) from the Carpathian Mountains and about 260 km (160 mi) from the Baltic Sea, 523 km (325 mi) east of Berlin, Germany.[77] The city straddles the Vistula River. It is located in the heartland of the Masovian Plain, and its average elevation is 100 m (330 ft) above sea level. The highest point on the left side of the city lies at a height of 115.7 m (380 ft) ("Redutowa" bus depot, district of Wola), on the right side – 122.1 m (401 ft) ("Groszówka" estate, district of Wesoła, by the eastern border). The lowest point lies at a height 75.6 m (248 ft) (at the right bank of the Vistula, by the eastern border of Warsaw). There are some hills (mostly artificial) located within the confines of the city – e.g. Warsaw Uprising Hill (121 m (397 ft)) and Szczęśliwice hill (138 m (453 ft) – the highest point of Warsaw in general). View of Grzybowski Square in the central district of Warsaw. The city is located on the mostly flat Masovian Plain, but the city centre is at a higher elevation than the suburbs. Warsaw is located on two main geomorphologic formations: the plain moraine plateau and the Vistula Valley with its asymmetrical pattern of different terraces. The Vistula River is the specific axis of Warsaw, which divides the city into two parts, left and right. The left one is situated both on the moraine plateau (10 to 25 m (33 to 82 ft) above Vistula level) and on the Vistula terraces (max. 6.5 m (21 ft) above Vistula level). The significant element of the relief, in this part of Warsaw, is the edge of moraine plateau called Warsaw Escarpment. It is 20 to 25 m (66 to 82 ft) high in the Old Town and Central district and about 10 m (33 ft) in the north and south of Warsaw. It goes through the city and plays an important role as a landmark. The plain moraine plateau has only a few natural and artificial ponds and also groups of clay pits. The pattern of the Vistula terraces is asymmetrical. The left side consists mainly of two levels: the highest one contains former flooded terraces and the lowest one is the floodplain terrace. The contemporary flooded terrace still has visible valleys and ground depressions with water systems coming from the old Vistula – riverbed. They consist of still quite natural streams and lakes as well as the pattern of drainage ditches. The right side of Warsaw has a different pattern of geomorphological forms. There are several levels of the Vistula plain terraces (flooded as well as formerly flooded), and only a small part is a not-so-visible moraine escarpment. Aeolian sand with a number of dunes parted by peat swamps or small ponds cover the highest terrace. These are mainly forested areas (pine forest). Climate Autumn in Warsaw's Royal Baths Warsaw experiences an oceanic (Köppen: Cfb) or humid continental (Köppen: Dfb) climate, depending on the isotherm used;[78][79] although the city used to be humid continental regardless of isotherm prior to the recent effect of climate change and the city's urban heat island.[80][81][82][83] Meanwhile, by the genetic climate classification of Wincenty Okołowicz, it has a temperate "fusion" climate, with both oceanic and continental features.[84] The city has cold, sometimes snowy, cloudy winters, and warm, relatively sunny but frequently stormy summers. Spring and autumn can be unpredictable, highly prone to sudden weather changes; however, temperatures are usually mild, especially around May and September.[80] The daily average temperature ranges between −1.5 °C (29 °F) in January and 19.7 °C (67.5 °F) in July and the mean year temperature is 9.0 °C (48.2 °F). Temperatures may reach 30 °C (86 °F) in the summer, although the effects of hot weather are usually offset by relatively low dew points and large diurnal temperature differences. Warsaw is Europe's sixth driest major city (driest in Central Europe), with yearly rainfall averaging 482 mm (19.0 in), the wettest month being July.[85] Climate data for Warsaw (WAW), 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1951–present Climate data for Warsaw-Bielany, 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1951–present Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 18.9 (66.0) 18.3 (64.9) 23.1 (73.6) 30.5 (86.9) 32.9 (91.2) 36.2 (97.2) 36.9 (98.4) 38.0 (100.4) 34.3 (93.7) 26.4 (79.5) 19.2 (66.6) 15.4 (59.7) 38.0 (100.4) Mean maximum °C (°F) 8.7 (47.7) 10.4 (50.7) 17.2 (63.0) 24.5 (76.1) 28.3 (82.9) 31.2 (88.2) 32.6 (90.7) 32.3 (90.1) 27.1 (80.8) 22.1 (71.8) 15.0 (59.0) 9.8 (49.6) 34.2 (93.6) Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 1.4 (34.5) 3.1 (37.6) 7.9 (46.2) 15.1 (59.2) 20.4 (68.7) 23.5 (74.3) 25.6 (78.1) 25.1 (77.2) 19.5 (67.1) 13.3 (55.9) 6.9 (44.4) 2.7 (36.9) 14.5 (58.1) Daily mean °C (°F) −1.1 (30.0) −0.1 (31.8) 3.6 (38.5) 9.7 (49.5) 14.8 (58.6) 18.2 (64.8) 20.2 (68.4) 19.4 (66.9) 14.2 (57.6) 8.9 (48.0) 4.2 (39.6) 0.3 (32.5) 9.3 (48.7) Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −3.3 (26.1) −2.6 (27.3) 0.2 (32.4) 4.9 (40.8) 9.3 (48.7) 12.9 (55.2) 14.9 (58.8) 14.5 (58.1) 10.2 (50.4) 5.7 (42.3) 2.0 (35.6) −1.8 (28.8) 5.6 (42.1) Mean minimum °C (°F) −14.3 (6.3) −11.3 (11.7) −6.9 (19.6) −1.6 (29.1) 2.6 (36.7) 7.3 (45.1) 10.2 (50.4) 9.0 (48.2) 3.8 (38.8) −1.9 (28.6) −5.1 (22.8) −10.4 (13.3) −16.8 (1.8) Record low °C (°F) −27.9 (−18.2) −28.0 (−18.4) −18.1 (−0.6) −5.5 (22.1) −2.6 (27.3) 2.8 (37.0) 6.5 (43.7) 5.1 (41.2) −1.3 (29.7) −8.3 (17.1) −15.9 (3.4) −24.8 (−12.6) −28.0 (−18.4) Average precipitation mm (inches) 35.6 (1.40) 34.4 (1.35) 34.2 (1.35) 36.8 (1.45) 58.1 (2.29) 67.8 (2.67) 81.5 (3.21) 63.3 (2.49) 50.9 (2.00) 42.6 (1.68) 40.8 (1.61) 41.7 (1.64) 587.9 (23.15) Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) 16.2 14.2 13.3 11.3 13.5 13.6 13.7 12.5 11.7 13.1 14.1 15.7 162.9 Average relative humidity (%) 85.0 82.5 75.8 66.5 66.5 66.9 69.9 70.9 79.5 83.1 86.4 86.4 76.7 Source: meteomodel.pl[99] Climate data for Warsaw Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Mean daily daylight hours 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 17.0 16.0 15.0 13.0 11.0 9.0 8.0 12.4 Source: Weather Atlas (sunshine data)[100] Cityscape Urbanism and architecture Main article: Architecture of Warsaw Warsaw's long and eclectic history left a noticeable mark on its architecture and urban form. Unlike most Polish cities, Warsaw's cityscape is mostly contemporary – modern glass buildings are towering above older historical edifices which is a common feature of North American metropolises. Warsaw is among the European cities with the highest number of skyscrapers and is home to European Union's tallest building. Skyscrapers are mostly centered around the Śródmieście district, with many located in the commercial district of Wola. A concentric zone pattern emerged within the last decades; the majority of Warsaw's residents live outside the commercial city centre and commute by metro, bus or tram.[101] Tenements and apartments in the central neighbourhoods are often reserved for commercial activity or temporary (tourist, student) accommodation. The nearest residential zones are predominantly located on the outskirts of the inner borough, in Ochota, Mokotów and Żoliborz or along the Vistula in Powiśle.[101] Old and new–Warsaw Polytechnic courtyard (above) and Złote Tarasy mall (below) A seat of Polish monarchs since the end of the 16th century, Warsaw remained a small city with only privately owned palaces, mansions, villas and several streets of townhouses. These displayed a richness of color and architectonic details. The finest German, Italian and Dutch architects were employed, among them Tylman van Gameren, Andreas Schlüter, Jakub Fontana, and Enrico Marconi.[102] The buildings situated in the vicinity of the Warsaw Old Town represent nearly every European architectural style and historical period. Warsaw has excellent examples of architecture from the Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque and Neoclassical periods, all of which are located within walking distance of the centre. This architectural richness has led to Warsaw being described by some commentators as a "Paris of the East".[103] Gothic architecture is represented in the majestic churches but also at the burgher houses and fortifications. The most significant buildings are St John's Cathedral (1390), a typical example of the so-called Masovian Brick Gothic style; St Mary's Church (1411); the Burbach townhouse (14th century);[104] Gunpowder Tower (after 1379); and Royal Castle's Curia Maior (1407–1410). The most notable examples of Renaissance architecture in the city are the house of the Baryczko merchant family (1562), a building called "The Negro" (early 17th century), and Salwator tenement (1632), all situated on the Old Market Place. The most interesting examples of Mannerist architecture are the Royal Castle (1596–1619) and the Jesuit Church (1609–1626). Hotel Bristol is a unique example of Warsaw's architectural heritage, combining Art Nouveau and Neo-Renaissance designs. Baroque architecture arrived in Warsaw at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries with the artists from the court circle of King Sigismund III Vasa (the early Warsaw Baroque is referred to as Vasa Baroque). Among the first structures of the early Baroque, the most important are St. Hyacinth's Church and Sigismund's Column, the first secular monument in the form of a column in modern history.[105] At that time, part of the Royal Castle was rebuilt in this style, the Ujazdów Castle and numerous Baroque palaces on the Vistula escarpment were constructed. In the architecture of Catholic churches, the Counter-Reformation type became a novelty, exemplified by the Church of St. Anthony of Padua, the Carmelite Church and the Holy Cross Church.[106] Warsaw Baroque from the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries was characterized by building facades with a predominance of vertical elements close to the wall and numerous ornaments. The most important architect working in Warsaw at that time was Tylman van Gameren. His projects include the Krasiński Palace, Palace of the Four Winds, Ostrogski Palace, Czapski Palace, Brühl Palace, and St. Kazimierz Church. The most significant Baroque building of this period is the Wilanów Palace, built on the order of King John III Sobieski.[106] The late Baroque era was the epoch of the Saxon Kings (1697–1763). During this time, three major spatial projects were realized: the 880-meter Piaseczyński Canal on the axis of Ujazdów Castle, the Ujazdów Calvary and the Saxon Axis. The Visitationist Church also dates from this period.[106] Baroque organ at St. Anne's Church The neoclassical architecture began to be the main style in the capital's architecture in Warsaw in the second half of the 18th century thanks to King Stanisław August Poniatowski. It can be described by the simplicity of the geometrical forms teamed with a great inspiration from the Roman period. The best-known architect who worked in Warsaw at the time was Domenico Merlini, who designed the Palace on the Isle. Other significant buildings from this period include Królikarnia, Holy Trinity Church, St. Anne's Church, Warsaw. Also in the first half of the 19th century, neoclassicism dominated the architecture of Warsaw. Old buildings were rebuilt and new ones were built in this style. The neoclassical revival affected all aspects of architecture; the most notable examples are the Great Theater, buildings located at Bank Square, headquarters of the Warsaw Society of Friends of Sciences (Staszic Palace), St. Alexander's Church, the Belweder. Many classicist tenement houses were built on Senatorska Street and along Nowy Świat Street. After the outbreak of the November Uprising, the Warsaw Citadel was constructed in the north of the city, and the Saxon Palace underwent a complete reconstruction, where the central body of the building was demolished and replaced by a monumental 11-bay colonnade.[107] In the mid-19th century, the industrial revolution reached Warsaw, leading to the mass use of iron as a building material. In 1845, the Warsaw-Vienna Railway Station was opened. Another important aspect of the developing city was ensuring access to water and sewage disposal. The first modern Warsaw water supply system was launched in 1855, designed by one of the most outstanding architects of that period – Enrico Marconi, who designed also All Saints Church. The dynamic development of the railway became a factor that enabled equally dynamic development of Warsaw's industry. Among the establishments built at that time were the Wedel factory and the extensive Municipal Gasworks complex.[108] The Government Presidium of the Polish People's Republic from 1952 is an example of eclectic modernism. In the architecture of the 1920s, national historicism and other historical forms were dominant. Art Deco forms also appeared, and towards the end of the decade, avant-garde functionalism emerged. The creation of urban plans for the capital of Poland can be traced back to 1916, when, after the retreat of the Russians from Warsaw and the beginnings of the German occupation, the territories of the surrounding municipalities were annexed to the city. Even before Poland regained its independence, parallel to the creation of the administration of the future state, the first urban visions were emerging. These included, among others, the construction of a representative government district in the southern part of Śródmieście. However, major changes in urban planning and the architectural landscape of the city only began in the mid-1920s. The forming state structures needed headquarters, leading to the construction of many monumental public buildings, including the buildings of the Sejm and the Senate, the Ministry of Religious Affairs and Public Education, the Ministry of Public Works, the National Museum, the State Geological Institute, the State Agricultural Bank, the Domestic Economy Bank, the directorate of the Polish State Railways, the Supreme Audit Office, and the campus of the Warsaw School of Economics. New districts were also established in Żoliborz, Ochota, and Mokotów, often designed around a central square with radiating streets (Narutowicz Square, Wilson Square). Examples of new large urban projects are the Staszic and Lubecki colonies in Ochota.[109] Exceptional examples of the bourgeois architecture of the later periods were not restored by the communist authorities after the war or were remodelled into a socialist realist style (like Warsaw Philharmonic edifice originally inspired by Palais Garnier in Paris). Despite that, the Warsaw University of Technology (Polytechnic) building.[110] is the most interesting of the late 19th-century architecture. Some 19th-century industrial and brick workhouse buildings in the Praga district were restored, though many have been poorly maintained or demolished.[111] Notable examples of post-war architecture include the Palace of Culture and Science, a soc-realist and art deco skyscraper based on the Empire State Building in New York. The Constitution Square with its monumental socialist realism architecture (MDM estate) was modelled on the grand squares of Paris, London, Moscow and Rome.[112] Italianate tuscan-styled colonnades based on those at Piazza della Repubblica in Rome were also erected on Saviour Square.[113] Contemporary architecture in Warsaw is represented by the Metropolitan Office Building at Pilsudski Square and Varso tower, both by Norman Foster,[114] Warsaw University Library (BUW) by Marek Budzyński and Zbigniew Badowski, featuring a garden on its roof and view of the Vistula River, Rondo 1 office building by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, Złota 44 residential skyscraper by Daniel Libeskind, Museum of the History of Polish Jews by Rainer Mahlamäki and Golden Terraces, consisting of seven overlapping domes retail and business centre. Jointly with Frankfurt, London, Paris and Rotterdam, Warsaw is one of the cities with the highest number of skyscrapers in Europe.[115][116] Landmarks Main Market Square in Old Town, a UNESCO World Heritage Site Map of Warsaw Old Town Although contemporary Warsaw is a fairly young city compared to other European capitals, it has numerous tourist attractions and architectural monuments dating back centuries. Apart from the Warsaw Old Town area, reconstructed after World War II, each borough has something to offer. Among the most notable landmarks of the Old Town are the Royal Castle, Sigismund's Column, Market Square, and the Barbican. Further south is the so-called Royal Route, with many historical churches, Baroque and Classicist palaces, most notably the Presidential Palace, and the University of Warsaw campus. The former royal residence of King John III Sobieski at Wilanów is notable for its Baroque architecture and eloquent palatial garden.[117] Royal Castle's baroque façade In many places in the city the Jewish culture and history resonates down through time.[118] Among them the most notable are the Jewish theater, the Nożyk Synagogue, Janusz Korczak's Orphanage and the picturesque Próżna Street.[118] The tragic pages of Warsaw's history are commemorated in places such as the Monument to the Ghetto Heroes, the Umschlagplatz, fragments of the ghetto wall on Sienna Street and a mound in memory of the Jewish Combat Organization.[118] Many places commemorate the heroic history of Warsaw such as Pawiak, a German Gestapo prison now occupied by a Mausoleum of Memory of Martyrdom and a museum. The Warsaw Citadel, a 19th-century fortification built after the defeat of the November Uprising, was a place of martyrdom for the Poles. Another important monument, the statue of Little Insurrectionist located at the ramparts of the Old Town, commemorates the children who served as messengers and frontline troops in the Warsaw Uprising, while the Warsaw Uprising Monument by Wincenty Kućma was erected in memory of the largest insurrection of World War II.[119][120] In Warsaw there are many places connected with the life and work of Frédéric Chopin who was born near the city in Żelazowa Wola. The heart of the Polish composer is sealed inside Warsaw's Holy Cross Church.[121] During the summer time the Chopin Statue in Łazienki Park is a place where pianists give concerts to the park audience.[122] Also many references to Marie Curie, her work and her family can be found in Warsaw; Curie's birthplace at the Warsaw New Town, the working places where she did her first scientific works[123] and the Radium Institute at Wawelska Street for the research and the treatment of which she founded in 1925.[124] Castle Square with the Royal Castle and Sigismund's Column Castle Square with the Royal Castle and Sigismund's Column Inside Holy Cross Church there is an epitaph with Chopin's heart Inside Holy Cross Church there is an epitaph with Chopin's heart Carmelite Church has an original 18th-century façade. Carmelite Church has an original 18th-century façade. Krasiński Palace, a branch of the National Library Krasiński Palace, a branch of the National Library St. Anne's Church St. Anne's Church Canon Square (Kanonia) with the narrowest townhouse in Europe Canon Square (Kanonia) with the narrowest townhouse in Europe St. Kazimierz Church at New Town Market Square St. Kazimierz Church at New Town Market Square Krakowskie Przedmieście Krakowskie Przedmieście Staszic Palace, the seat of the Polish Academy of Sciences Staszic Palace, the seat of the Polish Academy of Sciences Barbican, a remaining relic of historic fortifications Barbican, a remaining relic of historic fortifications Casimir Palace housed the Warsaw Lyceum whose alumni included Frédéric Chopin Casimir Palace housed the Warsaw Lyceum whose alumni included Frédéric Chopin Wilanów Palace, once a royal residence Wilanów Palace, once a royal residence Jabłonowski Palace, former city hall Jabłonowski Palace, former city hall Ujazdów Castle Ujazdów Castle Cemeteries Church of Saint Charles Borromeo in Stare Powązki The oldest necropolis in Warsaw is Stare Powązki, established in 1790. It is one of Poland's national necropolises.[125] The cemetery covers an area of 43 ha. On the day of consecration of the Powązki Cemetery, the foundation stone was laid for the construction of the church of Saint Charles Borromeo, designed by the royal architect Domenico Merlini. Catacombs were intended to be a prestigious resting place intended mainly for the nobles, such as Michał Poniatowski, Hugo Kołłątaj, Michał Kazimierz Ogiński. Over a million people are buried at Stare Powązki. In the Avenue of Merit there are the graves of insurgents and soldiers, independence activists, writers, poets, scientists, artists and thinkers.[126] The nearby Powązki Military Cemetery was established in 1912 for soldiers stationed in Warsaw. After World War II, the cemetery became a burial place for people associated with the Polish People's Republic - politicians, officials and military personnel.[125] The complex of non-Roman Catholic cemeteries consists of Evangelical–Augsburg Cemetery, Evangelical Reformed Cemetery, Jewish Cemetery, Orthodox Cemetery and Muslim Tatar Cemetery.[125] Other significant Warsaw necropolises are: Bródno Cemetery Warsaw Insurgents Cemetery, Służew Old Cemetery, Służew New Cemetery. There are two large municipal cemeteries in the city – Northern Communal Cemetery and Southern Communal Cemetery. Memorials The city's symbol is the mermaid placed in the capital's coat of arms. There are three mermaid monuments in Warsaw: one on the banks of the Vistula, the second on the Old Town Square, and the third in Praga-Południe. The oldest monument in Warsaw is the Sigismund's Column. It was built in 1644 according to the design of the Italians: Augustine Locci and Constantin Tencall. The King of Poland Sigismund III Vasa stands on a 22-meter high tower, holding a cross and a sword in his hand. The monument was destroyed and rebuilt many times.[127] Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, once part of the colonnade of Saxon Palace Many monuments commemorate heroic and tragic moments in the history of Poland and Warsaw. The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier located in Piłsudski Square was built on the initiative of General Władysław Sikorski in the arcades of the Saxon Palace. In 1925, the ashes of the unknown soldier who died during the defense of Lviv were placed under the colonnade, then urns with soil from 24 battlefields were buried here. Among the monuments related to the World War II are Nike Monument that commemorates the heroes of Warsaw from 1939 to 1945, Monument to the Polish Underground State and Home Army, Monument to the Little Insurrectionist and Warsaw Uprising Monument in front of the Supreme Court building at Krasiński Square. Monument to the Ghetto Heroes commemorates the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising of 1943.[128] In 1929, a Frédéric Chopin's monument was constructed in the Royal Łazienki Park. Every summer at its foot classical music concerts featuring world-famous pianists take place. Other important monuments are: Adam Mickiewicz Monument, Tadeusz Kościuszko Monument, Marie Curie Monument, Prince Józef Poniatowski Monument, Nicolaus Copernicus Monument, Stefan Starzyński Monument, Józef Piłsudski Monument, Janusz Korczak Monument.[127] Flora and fauna Green space covers almost a quarter of Warsaw's total area.[129] These range from small neighborhood parks and green spaces along streets or in courtyards, to tree-lined avenues, large historic parks, nature conservation areas and urban forests at the fringe of the city. There are as many as 82 parks in the city;[130] the oldest ones were once part of representative palaces and include the Saxon and Krasiński Gardens, Łazienki Park (Royal Baths Park) and Wilanów Palace Parkland. Łazienki Palace, also referred to as the Palace on the Isle The Saxon Garden, covering an area of 15.5 ha, formally served as a royal garden to the now nonexistent Saxon Palace. In 1727, it was made into one of the world's first public parks and later remodelled in the forest-like English style. The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is situated at the east end of the park near the central fountain, on Piłsudski Square. With its benches, flower carpets and a central pond, the Krasiński Palace Garden was once a notable strolling destination for most Varsovians. The Łazienki Park covers an area of 76 ha and its unique character and history is reflected in the landscape architecture (pavilions, sculptures, bridges, water cascades) and vegetation (domestic and foreign species of trees and shrubs). The presence of peacocks, pheasants and squirrels at Łazienki attracts tourists and locals. The Wilanów Palace Parkland on the outskirts of Warsaw traces it history to the second half of the 17th century and covers an area of 43 ha. Its French-styled alleys corresponds to the ancient, Baroque forms of the palace. A characteristic riparian zone (riverside forest) in the upper reaches of the Warsaw Vistula, near Siekierki Bridge The Botanical Garden and the University Library rooftop garden host an extensive collection of rare domestic and foreign plants, while a palm house in the New Orangery displays plants of subtropics from all over the world.[131] Mokotów Field (once a racetrack), Ujazdów Park and Skaryszewski Park are also located within the city borders. The oldest park in the Praga borough was established between 1865 and 1871.[132] The flora of Warsaw may be considered very rich in species on city standards. This is mainly due to the location of Warsaw within the border region of several big floral regions comprising substantial proportions of close-to-wilderness areas (natural forests, wetlands along the Vistula) as well as arable land, meadows and forests. The nearby Kampinos Nature Reserve is the last remaining part of the Masovian Primeval Forest and is protected by law.[133] The Kabaty Woods are by the southern city border and are visited by the residents of southern boroughs such as Ursynów. There are 13 natural reserves in the vicinity and just 15 kilometres (9 miles) from Warsaw, the environment features a perfectly preserved ecosystem with a habitat of animals like the otter, beavers and hundreds of bird species.[134] There are also several lakes in Warsaw – mainly the oxbow lakes at Czerniaków and Kamionek. The Warsaw Zoo covers an area of 40 hectares (99 acres).[135] There are about 5,000 animals representing nearly 500 species.[135] Although officially created in 1928,[135] it traces back its roots to 17th century private menageries, often open to the public.[136][137] Frédéric Chopin's monument in Łazienki Park Frédéric Chopin's monument in Łazienki Park Saxon Garden with the central fountain Saxon Garden with the central fountain Entrance to botanical garden located on the roof of University Library Entrance to botanical garden located on the roof of University Library A red squirrel in one of Warsaw's parks A red squirrel in one of Warsaw's parks Mokotów Field Mokotów Field Krasiński Garden Krasiński Garden Skaryszew Park in Kamionek Skaryszew Park in Kamionek Olszynka Grochowska Nature Reserve Olszynka Grochowska Nature Reserve Morysin Nature Reserve Morysin Nature Reserve Demographics Warsaw population pyramid in 2021 Demographically, Warsaw was the most diverse city in Poland, with significant numbers of foreign-born residents.[138] In addition to the Polish majority, there was a large and thriving Jewish minority. According to the Imperial Census of 1897, out of the total population of 638,000, Jews constituted 219,000 (equivalent to 34%).[139] Prior to the Second World War, Warsaw hosted the world's second largest Jewish population after New York – approximately 30 percent of the city's total population in the late 1930s.[52] In 1933, 833,500 out of 1,178,914 people declared Polish as their mother tongue.[140] There was also a notable German community.[141] The ethnic composition of contemporary Warsaw is incomparable to the diversity that existed for nearly 300 years.[52] Most of the modern-day population growth is based on internal migration and urbanisation. In the 2021 census, 98.78% of Warsaw residents identified themselves as Polish, 0.46% as Ukrainian, 0.31% as Belarusian and 0.21% as Jewish.[142] Historical population Year Pop. ±% 1700 30,000 — 1792 120,000 +300.0% 1800 63,400 −47.2% 1830 139,700 +120.3% 1850 163,600 +17.1% 1882 383,000 +134.1% 1901 711,988 +85.9% 1909 764,054 +7.3% 1925 1,003,000 +31.3% 1933 1,178,914 +17.5% 1939 1,300,900 +10.3% 1945 422,000 −67.6% 1950 803,888 +90.5% 1960 1,139,189 +41.7% 1970 1,314,892 +15.4% 1978 1,555,406 +18.3% 1988 1,655,272 +6.4% 2002 1,689,201 +2.0% 2011 1,700,612 +0.7% 2021 1,860,281 +9.4% source[143][144][145][146][147][148] Foreign residents (2024)[149] Nationality Population Ukraine 102,634 Belarus 41,834 Vietnam 7,773 India 7,438 Russia 6,032 Turkey 4,179 Georgia 3,867 China 4,037 France 2,088 Italy 1,891 In 1939, approximately 1,300,000 people resided in Warsaw;[150] by 1945 the population had dropped to 420,000. During the first years after the war, the population growth rate was high and the city soon began to suffer from the lack of flats and dwellings to house new incomers. The first remedial measure was the enlargement of Warsaw's total area (1951) – however the city authorities were still forced to introduce limitations; only the spouses and children of permanent residents as well as some persons of public importance (renowned specialists, artists, engineers) were permitted to stay. This negatively affected the image of an average Warsaw citizen, who was perceived as more privileged than those migrating from rural areas, towns or other cities. While all restrictions on residency registration were scrapped in 1990, the negative opinion of Varsovians in some form continues to this day.[citation needed] Warsaw metropolitan area is an example of the development of a strongly polarized region. The capital, along with its immediate surroundings, concentrates over half of the demographic potential of the Masovian Voivodeship, 2/3 of residents with higher education, and 3/4 of larger economic entities employing more than 50 workers. Current demographic development trends are as follows:[151] a clear increase in the number of residents after the 1989 transformations, from 1.6 to about 2.0 million inhabitants (including unregistered population), mainly due to positive migration balance. the highest migration attractiveness in the country for many decades, causing a strong drain of people in the mobile age (18–44 years), including a relatively more frequent influx of women, resulting in high feminization processes of internal deconcentration of population, consisting of centrifugal migration direction (from central districts to external ones, from external districts to suburban areas). Between 1989 and 2017, 213 thousand registered people moved from Warsaw to the suburbs, and in the opposite direction it was only 110 thousand. a clear aging of the population: at the end of 2017, people aged 60 and over constituted 27.2% of the registered population, and those aged 70 and over – 13.5%, while for example in 2002, it was respectively 21.5 and 11.5% In the coming years, an increase in the city's population is predicted, with migration being the main factor determining the state and structure of Warsaw's population, including mainly internal (national) and external (foreign) influx. Changes in the population are not uniform for the entire Warsaw and in the division into districts, the predicted demographic changes will have a varied course. A decrease in population is forecasted in some central districts (Praga-Północ, Śródmieście) and an increase in other districts.[151] Immigrant population In 2019, it was estimated that 40,000 people living in Warsaw were foreign-born. Of those, Ukrainians, Vietnamese, Belarusians, and Russians were the most prominent groups.[152] After Russia's aggression against Ukraine, over 1.1 million refugees from Ukraine passed through Warsaw, and at the beginning of March 2022, approximately 40,000 people applied for help every day. According to official data, over 104,000 of Ukrainian citizens who arrived in the first days after the outbreak of the war still reside in the city, including 17,000 young people and children attending urban educational institutions.[153] Due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the immigrant population has increased significantly to about 340,000.[154] Religion See also: Places of worship in Warsaw Religion in Warsaw (2021)[155] Catholicism (51%) Protestantism (0.6%) Eastern Orthodoxy (0.4%) Other Christian (0.1%) Other (0.2%) Undeclared (29%) Irreligion (19%) Throughout its existence, Warsaw had been a multi-cultural and multi-religious city.[156] According to the 1901 census, out of 711,988 inhabitants 56.2% were Catholics, 35.7% Jews, 5% Greek Orthodox Christians and 2.8% Protestants.[157] Eight years later, in 1909, there were 281,754 Jews (36.9%), 18,189 Protestants (2.4%) and 2,818 Mariavites (0.4%).[158] This led to construction of hundreds of places of religious worship in all parts of the town. Most of them were destroyed in the aftermath of the Warsaw Uprising in 1944. After the war, the new communist authorities of Poland discouraged church construction and only a small number were rebuilt.[159] The archdiocese of Warsaw and the Diocese of Warsaw-Praga are the two ecclesiastical districts active in the city which serve the large Roman Catholic population of 1.4 million.[160] The Lutheran Diocese of Warsaw is one of six in Poland; its main house of worship is the Holy Trinity Church from 1782, one of Warsaw's most important and historic landmarks. The Evangelical Reformed Parish (Calvinist) is leading the Polish Reformed Church. The main tserkva of the Orthodox Christians is Praga's Cathedral of St. Mary Magdalene from 1869. The Jewish Commune of Warsaw (Gmina Wyznaniowa Żydowska) is one of eight in the country; Chief Rabbi of Poland Michael Schudrich resides in the city. There are also 3 active synagogues, one of which is the pre-war Nożyk Synagogue designated for Orthodox Jews. An Islamic Cultural Centre in Ochota and a small mosque in Wilanów serve the Muslims. There are several Marian shrines in the city, including: sanctuary of the Gracious Mother of God with her image crowned in 1651 in the presence of King John Casimir. Another patron of the city is Blessed Władysław of Gielniów, bernardine from the St. Anne's Church. The greatest cult is that of St. Andrew Bobola, patron of the metropolis of Warsaw, whose relics are in the sanctuary of St. Andrew Bobola in Mokotów.[161] Important places of worship St. Florian's Cathedral St. Florian's Cathedral Archcathedral of St. John Archcathedral of St. John Field Cathedral of the Polish Army Field Cathedral of the Polish Army Orthodox Cathedral of St. Mary Magdalene Orthodox Cathedral of St. Mary Magdalene Lutheran Holy Trinity Church Lutheran Holy Trinity Church Nożyk Synagogue Nożyk Synagogue Church of the Holiest Saviour Church of the Holiest Saviour St. Francis' Church in New Town St. Francis' Church in New Town Government and politics Młodziejowski Palace, the seat of the Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights As the capital of Poland, Warsaw is the political centre of the country. Almost all central government institutions are located there, including the Chancellery of the President, both houses of the Polish Parliament (the lower house called Sejm and the upper house called Senate), the Chancellery of the Prime Minister, the Constitutional Tribunal, the Supreme Court, and the Supreme Administrative Court. Warsaw is also host to many major international organizations, including Frontex and the Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (the oldest and principal institution of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe).[162][163] The city is represented in the parliament by 20 members of Sejm (out of 460) and 4 senators (out of 100). In addition, Warsaw together with its metropolitan area elects 6 MEPs (Members of the European Parliament) out of 705. Municipal government See also: Warsaw City Council and List of city mayors of Warsaw Neoclassical Commission Palace, the house of the city's government The first city mayor of Warsaw was Jan Andrzej Menich (1695–1696).[164] The municipal self-government existed in Warsaw until World War II and was restored in 1990 (during the communist times, the National City Council – Miejska Rada Narodowa – governed in Warsaw). Since 1990, the structure of city government has been modified several times.[165] Between 1975 and 1990 the Warsaw city mayors simultaneously led the Warsaw Voivodeship. In the years 1990–1994, the city mayor of Warsaw was elected by the city council.[166] Subsequently, a controversial reform was introduced, transforming the city in the years of 1994–1999 into a loose municipal union of several gminas, dominated by one of them, the gmina Centrum encompassing the entire inner city. During this period, the mayor of gmina Centrum who was elected by its council was automatically designated as the city mayor of Warsaw, in spite of representing only a fraction of the population of the city. The city was becoming increasingly unmanageable, especially after the administrative reform of Poland in 1999 which further complicated the local government structure of Warsaw. In 2002, the new Warsaw Act of the Polish parliament restored Warsaw as a single urban gmina with the status of a city with powiat rights, led by a unified local government. At the same time, a significant reform was implemented in all Polish municipal governments, introducing direct elections of the wójt/town mayor/city mayor in all Polish gminas.[166] The first city mayor of Warsaw elected according to these rules was Lech Kaczyński, who however resigned ahead of term when he was elected President of Polish Republic in 2005. Warsaw has thereafter remained an urban gmina with the status of a city with powiat rights.[165] Legislative power in Warsaw is vested in a unicameral Warsaw City Council (Rada Miasta), which comprises 60 members.[165] Council members are elected directly every five years (since 2018 election). Like most legislative bodies, the city council divides itself into committees which have the oversight of various functions of the city government.[165] The city mayor exercises the executive power in the city, being the superior of all unelected municipal- or county-level officials and other employees and supervising all subsidiary entities of the city. The incumbent city mayor of Warsaw is Rafał Trzaskowski. The Warsaw Act imposes a mandatory division into 18 auxiliary units called dzielnica (district) on the city. In spite of remaining an integral part of the city as an entity, the districts have a degree of autonomy legally guaranteed through a form of an own local self-government exercising some powers devolved by law from the city. They have the duty to assist the city mayor and the City Council in their tasks, such as supervising some municipal companies, city-owned property or schools. Each of the 18 city districts has an own council (rada dzielnicy)[165] which elects an executive board (zarząd dzielnicy) headed by a district mayor (burmistrz dzielnicy), the latter elected by the council among several candidates nominated by the city mayor of Warsaw among the council's members. Headquarters of Polish government agencies in Warsaw The Presidential Palace, official seat of the President The Presidential Palace, official seat of the President Belweder Palace, residential seat of the President Belweder Palace, residential seat of the President Chancellery of the Prime Minister Chancellery of the Prime Minister Poland's bicameral parliament, the Sejm and the Senate Poland's bicameral parliament, the Sejm and the Senate Supreme Court of Poland Supreme Court of Poland Supreme Administrative Court Supreme Administrative Court The seat of the administration of the Masovian Voivodeship The seat of the administration of the Masovian Voivodeship Mostowski Palace, the seat of Warsaw's police headquarters Mostowski Palace, the seat of Warsaw's police headquarters The main gate of the Ministry of Health The main gate of the Ministry of Health Ministry of Agriculture Ministry of Agriculture Ministry of Finance Ministry of Finance Gates of Ministry of Culture and National Heritage housed in Potocki Palace Gates of Ministry of Culture and National Heritage housed in Potocki Palace Districts District Population Area Mokotów 225,496 35.4 km2 (13.7 sq mi) Praga Południe 186,623 22.4 km2 (8.6 sq mi) Białołęka 154,596 73.04 km2 (28.20 sq mi) Ursynów 151,345 48.6 km2 (18.8 sq mi) Wola 150,977 19.26 km2 (7.44 sq mi) Bielany 132,803 32.3 km2 (12.5 sq mi) Bemowo 128,995 24.95 km2 (9.63 sq mi) Targówek 123,957 24.37 km2 (9.41 sq mi) Śródmieście 101,030 15.57 km2 (6.01 sq mi) Wawer 86,854 79.71 km2 (30.78 sq mi) Ochota 80,587 29.7 km2 (11.5 sq mi) Ursus 67,814 29.35 km2 (11.33 sq mi) Praga Północ 60,387 11.4 km2 (4.4 sq mi) Żoliborz 58,724 28.5 km2 (11.0 sq mi) Wilanów 51,603 36.73 km2 (14.18 sq mi) Włochy 49,332 28.63 km2 (11.05 sq mi) Wesoła 26,454 22.6 km2 (8.7 sq mi) Rembertów 24,768 19.30 km2 (7.45 sq mi) Total 1,862,345[167] 521.81 km2 (201.47 sq mi) BiałołękaBielanyBemowoŻoliborzPraga-PółnocTargówekŚródmieścieWolaOchotaWłochyUrsusMokotówWawerPraga-PołudnieRembertówWesołaUrsynówWilanów As a result, Warsaw has thereafter continued as an urban gmina holding status of a city with powiat rights, divided into 18 districts (dzielnica),[168] auxiliary municipal units established within the city as an entity as its integral parts, though with some limited powers devolved from the city to their own local self-governments.[169] Each of the districts is customarily subdivided into several neighbourhoods lacking any meaningful legal or administrative powers. The central district of Śródmieście includes the two founding neighbourhoods of the city, called the Old Town (Stare Miasto) and the New Town (Nowe Miasto).[170] Districts of Warsaw Śródmieście, the central district of Warsaw, houses the most important state and municipal institutions and most tourist attractions. Śródmieście, the central district of Warsaw, houses the most important state and municipal institutions and most tourist attractions. Wola, once an industrial district, is now becoming the business center of the capital.[171] The photo shows the revitalized Norblin Factory. Wola, once an industrial district, is now becoming the business center of the capital.[171] The photo shows the revitalized Norblin Factory. Praga-Południe, the most densely populated district of Warsaw (8,839 people/km2), is composed mainly of apartment blocks built during the times of the Polish People's Republic.[172] Praga-Południe, the most densely populated district of Warsaw (8,839 people/km2), is composed mainly of apartment blocks built during the times of the Polish People's Republic.[172] Ochota, a residential district that developed most intensively in the interwar period.[173] The photo shows Narutowicz Square, the central point of the district. Ochota, a residential district that developed most intensively in the interwar period.[173] The photo shows Narutowicz Square, the central point of the district. Wilanów, the district with the highest rate of natural increase (7.2/1000 inhabitants).[172] Wilanów, the district with the highest rate of natural increase (7.2/1000 inhabitants).[172] Economy Main article: Economy of Poland Hala Koszyki, a former market hall from the early 20th century Warsaw is the leading economic and financial hub of the Visegrád Group and the Three Seas Initiative. In 2021, the city's gross metropolitan product (GDP) was estimated at €100 billion, which places Warsaw 20th among the metropolitan areas in the European Union with largest GDP.[174] Warsaw generates almost 1/5 of the Polish GDP and the country's national income.[175] In 2020, Warsaw was classified as a global city, because Warsaw is a major global city that links economic regions into the world economy.[176] Warsaw's city centre (Śródmieście) and commercial Wola district are home not only to many national institutions and government agencies, but also to many domestic and international companies. Warsaw's ever-growing business community has been noticed globally, regionally, and nationally. In 2019 Warsaw was one of the top destinations for foreign investors in Europe.[177] Varso and Warsaw Spire are the skyscrapers with the largest office space The average monthly gross salary in the enterprise sector in the last quarter of 2022 amounted to 8,104 PLN and was 404 PLN higher than the average in the Masovian Voivodeship and as much as 1,450 PLN higher than in Poland. The highest gross salary was received by employees working in the information and communication section (11,701.47 PLN). There are 525,475 registered business entities in Warsaw, most of them in the districts of Śródmieście, Mokotów, Wola and Praga-Południe, 1.1 million people work in the enterprise sector. Warsaw has a well-developed office base, the office space is 6.27 million m2. The largest office buildings are Varso (63,800 m2), Warsaw Spire (60 000 m2), Forest Tower (51,500 m2) and P180 (32,000 m2), the largest projects under construction are The Bridge (47,000 m2) and Skyliner II (38,000 m2). The space resources of shopping centers in the Warsaw agglomeration in amount to over 1.7 million m2.[178] In October 2019 Warsaw's unemployment rate was 1.3%, the lowest in the country.[179] Shopping and consumerism is an important component of Warsaw's economy. The retail streets in Warsaw are New World Street (Nowy Świat) along with Krakowskie Przedmieście. These streets and their neighboring areas host many luxury stores and popular restaurants. However, most retailers choose to operate in the central shopping centres and malls such as Złote Tarasy-Golden Terraces, Galeria Mokotów and Westfield Arkadia.[180] Luxury goods as well as designer labels can be found in the Vitkac Department Store and around Frascati.[181] Warsaw Stock Exchange Main article: Warsaw Stock Exchange The Warsaw Stock Exchange is the largest in Central Europe. Warsaw's first stock exchange was established in 1817 and continued trading until World War II. It was re-established in April 1991, following the end of a communist planned economy and the reintroduction of a free-market economy.[182] Today, the Warsaw Stock Exchange (WSE) is, according to many indicators,[183] the largest market in the region, with 433 companies listed and total capitalisation of 1 trillion PLN as of 26 November 2020.[184] From 1991 until 2000, the stock exchange was, ironically, located in the building previously used as the headquarters of the communist Polish United Workers' Party (PZPR).[185] Industry Powiśle Power Plant Praga Koneser Center Examples of revitalized industrial facilities: Powiśle Power Plant (left) and Praga Koneser Center within the former Warsaw Vodka Factory (right) The most prominent industries and industrial sectors include high-tech, electrotechnical, chemical, cosmetic, construction, food processing, printing, metallurgy, machinery and clothing. The majority of production plants and facilities are concentrated within the WOP Warsaw Industrial Precinct (Warszawski Okręg Przemysłowy) which is situated around the city's peripheral localities such as Praga, Pruszków, Sochaczew, Piaseczno, Marki and Żyrardów.[186] Warsaw has developed a particularly strong retail market/sector, representing around 13% of the total retail stock in the country.[187] Following World War II, the authorities decided that the city will be transformed into a major centre for heavy industry and manufacturing. As a result, numerous large factories and production facilities were built in and around the city. Among the largest were Huta Warszawa steel works, now arcelor), the Ursus SA, and the Fabryka Samochodów Osobowych (FSO) car factory. The now-defunct FSO, established in 1951, was once Warsaw's most successful corporation. Notable vehicles assembled there over the decades include the FSO Warszawa, FSO Syrena, Polski Fiat 125p and the FSO Polonez. In 1995, the factory was purchased by the South Korean car manufacturer Daewoo, which assembled its models in Warsaw for the European market. Tourism Hotel Europejski Hotel Polonia Palace The estimated number of tourist arrivals to Warsaw in 2022 was over 9 million. Most tourists came from the United Kingdom (347,000), Germany (321,000), the United States (206,000) and France (145,000). Additionally, Warsaw was visited by 5.8 million one-day tourists, giving a total of over 14.8 million tourists in 2022. The above data does not include Ukrainian citizens who came to Warsaw in connection with the Russian invasion of Ukraine. The accommodation base consists of 1,010 hotels offering over 56,000 beds. The estimated contribution of the tourism economy to Warsaw's GDP is 12.9 billion PLN, and the tourism industry employs 87,703 people.[178] 144,220 people used Warsaw Tourist Lines in 2022 - almost 14,000 more than previous year. In the summer, Warsaw residents and tourists could use ferries across the Vistula, a ship to Serock, bus and tram lines operated with historic rolling stock, and a narrow-gauge railway. The most popular attraction among tourists was the Royal Łazienki Museum, which was visited by 5,265,110 tourists.[178] Warsaw is an important center for conferences and congresses. The Warsaw Convention Bureau collected information on 9,000 events in 2022, which gathered a total of 1,240,467 participants in Warsaw.[178] Media and film See also: List of films set in Warsaw Warsaw is the media centre of Poland, and the location of the main headquarters of TVP and other numerous local and national TV and radio stations, such as Polskie Radio (Polish Radio), TVN, Polsat, TV4, TV Puls, Canal+ Poland, Cyfra+ and MTV Poland.[188] Warsaw also has a sizable movie and television industry. The city houses several movie companies and studios. Since May 1661 the first Polish newspaper, the Polish Ordinary Mercury, was printed in Warsaw. The city is also the printing capital of Poland with a wide variety of domestic and foreign periodicals expressing diverse views, and domestic newspapers are extremely competitive. Rzeczpospolita, Gazeta Wyborcza and Dziennik Polska-Europa-Świat, Poland's large nationwide daily newspapers,[189] have their headquarters in Warsaw. Since World War II, Warsaw has been the most important centre of film production in Poland. Among the movie companies are TOR, Czołówka, Zebra and Kadr which is behind several international movie productions.[190] The city itself has featured in numerous movies, both Polish and foreign, for example: Kanał and Korczak by Andrzej Wajda and The Decalogue by Krzysztof Kieślowski, also including Oscar winner The Pianist by Roman Polański.[191] It is also home to the National Film Archive, which, since 1955, has been collecting and preserving Polish film culture.[192] Education Main article: Education in Warsaw Higher education in Warsaw Warsaw holds some of the finest institutions of higher education in Poland. It is home to four major universities and over 62 smaller schools of higher education.[193] The overall number of students of all grades of education in Warsaw is almost 500,000 (29.2% of the city population; 2002). The number of university students is over 280,000.[194] Most of the reputable universities are public, but in recent years there has also been an upsurge in the number of private universities. The main gate of the University of Warsaw The University of Warsaw was established in 1816, when the partitions of Poland separated Warsaw from the oldest and most influential Polish academic center, in Kraków.[195] The university is the largest in the country, and often regarded as one of the most prestigious, with international recognition in mathematics and science.[196][197][198] Warsaw University of Technology is the second academic school of technology in the country, and one of the largest in East-Central Europe.[199] Other institutions for higher education include the Medical University of Warsaw, the largest medical school in Poland and one of the most prestigious; the National Defence University, the highest military academic institution in Poland; the Fryderyk Chopin University of Music, the oldest and largest music school in Poland and one of the largest in Europe;[200] the Warsaw School of Economics, the oldest and most renowned economic university in the country;[201] the Warsaw University of Life Sciences, the largest agricultural university, founded in 1818;[202] and the University of Social Sciences and Humanities, the first private secular university in the country. Warsaw has numerous libraries, many of which contain vast collections of historic documents. The most important library in terms of historic document collections is the National Library of Poland. The library holds 8.2 million volumes in its collection.[203] Formed in 1928,[204] it sees itself as a successor to the Załuski Library, the biggest in Poland and one of the first and biggest libraries in the world.[204][205] Another important library – the University Library, founded in 1816,[206] is home to over two million items.[207] The building was designed by architects Marek Budzyński and Zbigniew Badowski and opened on 15 December 1999.[208] It is surrounded by green. The University Library garden, designed by Irena Bajerska, was opened on 12 June 2002. It is one of the largest roof gardens in Europe with an area of more than 10,000 m2 (110,000 sq ft), and plants covering 5,111 m2 (55,010 sq ft).[209] As the university garden it is open to the public every day.[209] Higher education institutions in Warsaw Warsaw University of Technology main building Warsaw University of Technology main building Academy of Fine Arts Academy of Fine Arts War Studies Academy War Studies Academy Warsaw University Library Warsaw University Library National Academy of Dramatic Art National Academy of Dramatic Art Warsaw School of Economics Campus Warsaw School of Economics Campus Faculty of Journalism, University of Warsaw Faculty of Journalism, University of Warsaw Transport Main articles: Transport in Warsaw and Infrastructure in Warsaw Warsaw is a considerable transport hub linking Western, Central and Eastern Europe. The city has a good network of buses and a continuously expanding perpendicular metro running north to south and east to west. The tram system is one of the biggest in Europe, with a total length of 133 km (83 mi).[210] As a result of increased foreign investment, economic growth and EU funding, the city has undertaken the construction of new roads, flyovers and bridges.[211] The supervising body is the City Roads Authority (ZDM – Zarząd Dróg Miejskich). S8 in Warsaw There are 11 bridges over the Vistula within the city. In the photo, Poniatowski Bridge and Świętokrzyski Bridge in the distance The table presents statistics on public transport in Warsaw.[212][210] System Stations / Lines / Net length Annual ridership Operator / Notes Metro 39 / 2 / 41 km (25 mi) 199,974,995 (2023) ZTM / Underground rail system Trams 538 / 24 / 133 km (83 mi) 248,903,710 (2023) ZTM / Lines marked with one- or dwo-digit number Bus 3227 / 301 / 3,024 km (1,879 mi) 452,220,927 (2023) ZTM / Extensive services in all boroughs / 41 Night lines / Lines marked with three-digit number Fast Urban Railway 198 / 9 / 116 km (72 mi) 15,161,224 (2023) ZTM / Overground rapid transit rail system Koleje Mazowieckie 45 stations within the city 36,018,918 (2023) KM / Regional carrier / Within the city limits a common ticket with other means of public transport / Number of passengers using stations located in Warsaw Commuter Railway 2 / 28 / 33 km (21 mi) 3,516,550 (2023) WKD / Operates on a separate railway line Warsaw lacks a complete ring road system and most traffic goes directly through the city centre, leading to the eleventh highest level of congestion in Europe.[213] The Warsaw ring road has been planned to consist of four express roads: S2 (south), S8 (north-west) and S17 (east). S8, S2 and a small 3 km section of S17 are open. Additionally, the S2 and S8 have a concurrency with the S7 and the S2 has a short concurrency with the S8. A second ring road consisting of the A50 motorway (south) and S50 expressway (north) is also planned but it is unknown when construction will start. The A2 motorway opened in June 2012, stretches west from Warsaw and is a direct motorway connection with Łódź, Poznań and ultimately with Berlin. Warsaw Chopin Airport The city has two international airports: Warsaw Chopin Airport, located just 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) from the city centre, and Warsaw-Modlin Airport, located 35 kilometres (22 mi) to the north, opened in July 2012. With around 100 international and domestic flights a day and with 7,440,056 passengers served in 2021,[214] and it has also been called "the most important and largest airport in Central Europe".[215] Public transport also extends to light rail Warszawska Kolej Dojazdowa line, urban railway Szybka Kolej Miejska, regional rail Koleje Mazowieckie (Mazovian Railways),[216] and bicycle sharing systems (Veturilo). The buses, trams, urban railway and Metro are managed by the Public Transport Authority and are collectively known as Warsaw Public Transport. Long distance and intercity trains are operated by Polish State Railways (PKP). There are also some suburban bus lines run by private operators.[217] Bus service covers the entire city, with approximately 256 routes totalling above 3,000 kilometres (1,900 mi), and with some 1,700 vehicles. The first section of the Warsaw Metro was opened in 1995 initially with a total of 11 stations.[218] As of 2024, it has 39 stations running a distance of approximately 41 km (25 mi).[219] The main railway station is Warszawa Centralna serving both domestic traffic to almost every major city in Poland, and international connections. There are also five other major railway stations and a number of smaller suburban stations. Public transport in Warsaw Metro Line 2, Nowy Świat-Uniwersytet station Metro Line 2, Nowy Świat-Uniwersytet station Bus Bus Tram car Tram car Pendolino high-speed trains at Warszawa Centralna Pendolino high-speed trains at Warszawa Centralna Fast Urban Railway at Chopin Airport station Fast Urban Railway at Chopin Airport station Koleje Mazowieckie trains at Warszawa Wschodnia Koleje Mazowieckie trains at Warszawa Wschodnia Veturilo bicycle rack at Oboźna Street Veturilo bicycle rack at Oboźna Street Entrance to the metro station Entrance to the metro station Culture Music and theatre The edifice of the Grand Theatre in Warsaw. It is one of the largest theatres in Europe, featuring one of the biggest stages in the world. Thanks to numerous musical venues, including the Teatr Wielki, the Polish National Opera, the Chamber Opera, the National Philharmonic Hall and the National Theatre, as well as the Roma and Buffo music theatres and the Congress Hall in the Palace of Culture and Science, Warsaw hosts many events and festivals. Among the events worth particular attention are: the International Frédéric Chopin Piano Competition, the International Contemporary Music Festival Warsaw Autumn, the Jazz Jamboree, Warsaw Summer Jazz Days, the International Stanisław Moniuszko Vocal Competition, the Mozart Festival, and the Festival of Old Music.[220] Warsaw is also considered one of the European hubs of underground electronic music with a very attractive house and techno music scene.[221] Warsaw is home to over 30 major theatres spread throughout the city, including the National Theatre (founded in 1765) and the Grand Theatre (established 1778).[222] Warsaw Philharmonic is a venue for the International Chopin Piano Competition Warsaw also attracts many young and off-stream directors and performers who add to the city's theatrical culture. Their productions may be viewed mostly in smaller theatres and Houses of Culture (Domy Kultury), mostly outside Śródmieście (Central Warsaw). Warsaw hosts the International Theatrical Meetings. From 1833 to the outbreak of World War II, Plac Teatralny (Theatre Square) was the country's cultural hub and home to the various theatres.[223] Plac Teatralny and its environs was the venue for numerous parades, celebrations of state holidays, carnival balls and concerts. The main building housed the Great Theatre from 1833 to 1834, the Rozmaitości Theatre from 1836 to 1924 and then the National Theatre, the Reduta Theatre from 1919 to 1924, and from 1928 to 1939 – the Nowy Theatre, which staged productions of contemporary poetical drama, including those directed by Leon Schiller.[223] Nearby, in Ogród Saski (the Saxon Garden), the Summer Theatre was in operation from 1870 to 1939,[224] and in the inter-war period, the theatre complex also included Momus, Warsaw's first literary cabaret, and Leon Schiller's musical theatre Melodram. The Wojciech Bogusławski Theatre (1922–26) was the best example of "Polish monumental theatre". From the mid-1930s, the Great Theatre building housed the Upati Institute of Dramatic Arts – the first state-run academy of dramatic art, with an acting department and a stage directing department.[223] Museums and art galleries Museums in Warsaw There are over 60 museums and galleries in Warsaw which are accessible to the public.[225] Among the positions are the world's first Museum of Posters boasting one of the largest collections of art posters in the world,[226] and the Museum of the History of Polish Jews. Among the most prestigious ones are the National Museum with a collection of works whose origin ranges in time from antiquity until the present epoch as well as one of the best collections of paintings in the country including some paintings from Adolf Hitler's private collection,[227] and the Museum of the Polish Army whose set portrays the history of arms. The collections of Łazienki and Wilanów palaces focus on the paintings of the "old masters", as do those of the Royal Castle which displays the Lanckoroński Collection including two paintings by Rembrandt.[228] The Palace in Natolin, a former rural residence of Duke Czartoryski, is another venue with its interiors and park accessible to tourists. The famous Copernicus Science Centre is an interactive science museum containing over 450 exhibits, enabling visitors to carry out experiments and discover the laws of science for themselves. Warsaw does not have a natural history museum. Yet, it hosts small museums of Evolution and the Earth, which play a similar role. Holding Poland's largest private collection of art, the Carroll Porczyński Collection Museum[229] displays works from such varied artists as Paris Bordone, Cornelis van Haarlem, José de Ribera, William-Adolphe Bouguereau, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, and Vincent van Gogh[230] along with some copies of masterpieces of European painting. A fine tribute to the fall of Warsaw and history of Poland can be found in the Warsaw Uprising Museum and in the Katyń Museum which preserves the memory of that crime.[231] The Warsaw Uprising Museum also operates a rare preserved and operating historic stereoscopic theatre, the Warsaw Fotoplastikon. The Museum of Independence preserves patriotic and political objects connected with Poland's struggles for independence. Dating back to 1936 the Warsaw Historical Museum contains 60 rooms which host a permanent exhibition of the history of Warsaw from its origins until today. The 17th century Royal Ujazdów Castle houses the Centre for Contemporary Art, with some permanent and temporary exhibitions, concerts, shows and creative workshops. The Centre realizes about 500 projects a year. The Zachęta National Gallery of Art, the oldest exhibition site in Warsaw, with a tradition stretching back to the mid-19th century organises exhibitions of modern art by Polish and International Artists and promotes art in many other ways. Since 2011, Warsaw Gallery Weekend is held on the last weekend of September. 28 September 2023 the opening of the new building of the Museum of Polish History located at the Warsaw Citadel took place. The city also possesses some oddities such as the Neon Museum, the Museum of Caricature,[232] the Museum of John Paul II and Primate Wyszyński, the Legia Warsaw Museum, and a Motorisation Museum in Otrębusy.[233] Museums in Warsaw Zachęta National Gallery of Art Zachęta National Gallery of Art Warsaw Rising Museum Warsaw Rising Museum Warsaw National Museum Warsaw National Museum Museum of Polish History Museum of Polish History POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews opened in 2013 POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews opened in 2013 The 17th-century Ostrogski Castle houses the Chopin Museum. The 17th-century Ostrogski Castle houses the Chopin Museum. Marie Curie Museum, housed in the tenement house where she was born Marie Curie Museum, housed in the tenement house where she was born Copernicus Science Centre, planetarium Copernicus Science Centre, planetarium Cuisine and food Wuzetka chocolate cake originated in Warsaw and is an icon of the city. Warsaw's culinary tradition was shaped by its once multicultural population; its cuisine is distinct from that of other cities and towns in Poland.[234][235] Strong Jewish and French influences were cultivated over the years, in particular herring, consommé, bagels, aspic and French meringue-based pastries or cakes.[236] Traditional Varsovian food is hearty and includes a tripe soup for entrée, a pyza dumpling for main and the iconic wuzetka (voo-zetka) chocolate cream pie for dessert.[236][237] Crayfish and fish in gelatin were the classical dishes in Warsaw's restaurants throughout the 1920s and the 1930s.[235] Much like Paris or Vienna, Warsaw once possessed a prominent café culture which dated back to the early 18th century, and the city's cafeterias were a place for socializing.[238] The historic Wedel Chocolate Lounge on Szpitalna Street remains one of the most renowned spots for social gatherings. Cafeterias, confectioneries and patisseries such as Caffè Nero, Costa Coffee and Starbucks are predominantly found along the Royal Route on New World Street. Thousands of Warsaw's residents also flock annually to the pastry workshops (pączkarnia) to buy pączki doughnuts on Fat Thursday.[239] Interior of the Wedel Chocolate Lounge on Szpitalna Street Restaurants offering authentic Polish cuisine are concentrated around the Old Town district. Various spit cakes of Czech or Hungarian origin (kürtőskalács and trdelník) are also sold primarily in the Old Town.[240] Hala Koszyki is a popular meeting place in Warsaw noted for its food hall.[241] In the 20th century, Warsaw was famed for its state-owned milk bars (bar mleczny) which offered cheap fast food in the form of home dinners. Examples of dishes popularized by these canteens include tomato soup, schnitzels, frikadeller, mizeria salad and many others. Contemporary fast food giants like McDonald's, KFC, Subway and Burger King are the successors to milk bars, though some reemerged in recent years due to widespread nostalgia.[242] Gourmet and haute cuisine establishments are situated in the vicinity of the downtown area or in the Frascati neighbourhood. Thirteen Varsovian restaurants were appreciated by the Michelin Guide, with two receiving a michelin star in 2019.[243][244] In 2021, National Geographic named Warsaw one of the top cities for vegans in Europe. Śródmieście Południowe (Southern Downtown) and its "hipster food culture" was singled out as the epicenter.[245] Events Annual procession of the Three Wise Men (Epiphany) at Warsaw's Castle Square Several commemorative events take place every year, notably the Orange Warsaw Festival featuring music concerts. One of the more popular events is the procession of the Three Wise Men (in Polish known as the Three Kings) on Epiphany, shortly after the New Year. Paper crowns are usually worn by spectators throughout the day. The event, which runs along the Royal Route, is attended by Warsaw's highest officials and by the Polish president who resides nearby.[246][247] Gatherings of thousands of people on the banks of the Vistula on Midsummer's Night for a festival called Wianki (Polish for Wreaths) have also become a tradition and a yearly event in the programme of cultural events in Warsaw.[248][249] The festival traces its roots to a peaceful pagan ritual where maidens would float their wreaths of herbs on the water to predict when they would be married, and to whom.[248] By the 19th century this tradition had become a festive event, and it continues today.[248] The city council organize concerts and other events.[249] Each Midsummer's Eve, apart from the official floating of wreaths, jumping over fires, and looking for the fern flower, there are musical performances, dignitaries' speeches, fairs and fireworks by the river bank.[249] Warsaw Multimedia Fountain Park is located in an enchanting place, near the Old Town and the Vistula. The 'Water – Light – Sound' multimedia shows take place each Friday and Saturday from May until September at 9.30 pm (May and – 9 October pm). On other weekdays, the shows do not include lasers and sound. The Warsaw Film festival, an annual festival that takes place every October.[250] Films are usually screened in their original language with Polish subtitles and participating cinemas include Kinoteka (Palace of Science and Culture), Multikino at Golden Terraces and Kultura. Over 100 films are shown throughout the festival, and awards are given to the best and most popular films.[250] Warsaw Mermaid Main article: Coat of arms of Warsaw The 1659 coat of arms of Old Warsaw on the cover of one of Warsaw's accounting books The mermaid (syrenka) is Warsaw's symbol[251] and can be found on statues throughout the city and on the city's coat of arms. This imagery has been in use since at least the mid-14th century.[252] The oldest existing armed seal of Warsaw is from the year 1390, consisting of a round seal bordered with the Latin inscription Sigilium Civitatis Varsoviensis (Seal of the city of Warsaw).[253] City records as far back as 1609 document the use of a crude form of a sea monster with a female upper body and holding a sword in its claws.[254] In 1653 the poet Zygmunt Laukowski asks the question: Warsaw of strong walls; why was the emblem Mermaid with sharp sword, given you by the kings? — Zygmunt Laukowski[255] 1855 bronze sculpture of The Warsaw Mermaid in the Old Town Market Place The Mermaid Statue stands in the very centre of Old Town Square, surrounded by a fountain. Due to vandalism, the original statue had been moved to the grounds of the Museum of Warsaw – the statue in the square is a copy. This is not the only mermaid in Warsaw. Another is located on the bank of the Vistula River near Świętokrzyski Bridge and another on Karowa Street. The origin of the legendary figure is not fully known. The best-known legend, by Artur Oppman, is that long ago two of Triton's daughters set out on a journey through the depths of the oceans and seas. One of them decided to stay on the coast of Denmark and can be seen sitting at the entrance to the port of Copenhagen. The second mermaid reached the mouth of the Vistula River and plunged into its waters. She stopped to rest on a sandy beach by the village of Warszowa, where fishermen came to admire her beauty and listen to her beautiful voice. A greedy merchant also heard her songs; he followed the fishermen and captured the mermaid.[256] Another legend says that a mermaid once swam to Warsaw from the Baltic Sea for the love of the Griffin, the ancient defender of the city, who was killed in a struggle against the Swedish invasions of the 17th century. The mermaid, wishing to avenge his death, took the position of defender of Warsaw, becoming the symbol of the city.[256] Every member of the Queen's Royal Hussars of the UK's light cavalry wears the Maid of Warsaw, the crest of the City of Warsaw, on the left sleeve of his No. 2 (Service) Dress.[257] Members of 651 Squadron Army Air Corps of the United Kingdom also wear the Maid of Warsaw on the left sleeve of their No. 2 (Service) Dress.[258] Sports Main article: Sport in Warsaw On 9 April 2008, the Mayor of Warsaw, Hanna Gronkiewicz-Waltz, obtained from the mayor of Stuttgart Wolfgang Schuster a challenge award – a commemorative plaque awarded to Warsaw as the European capital of Sport in 2008.[259] The Interior of the National Stadium before the UEFA Euro 2012 semi-final match between Germany and Italy on 28 June 2012 The Kazimierz Górski National Stadium, a 58,580-seat-capacity football (soccer) stadium, replaced Warsaw's recently demolished 10th-Anniversary Stadium.[260] The National Stadium hosted the opening match, two group matches, a quarter-final, and a semi-final of UEFA Euro 2012.[261] There are many sports centres in the city as well. Most of these facilities are swimming pools and sports halls, many of them built by the municipality in the past several years. The main indoor venue is Hala Torwar, used for a variety of indoor sports (it was a venue for the 2009 EuroBasket[262] but it is also used as an indoor skating rink). There is also an open-air skating rink (Stegny) and a horse racetrack (Służewiec). The Polish Army Stadium, the home ground of Legia Warsaw football club The best of the city's swimming centres is at Wodny Park Warszawianka, 4 km (2 mi) south of the centre at Merliniego Street, where there's an Olympic-sized pool as well as water slides and children's areas.[263] From the Warsovian football teams, the most famous is Legia Warsaw – the army club with a nationwide following play at the Polish Army Stadium, just southeast of the centre at Łazienkowska Street. Established in 1916, they have won the country's championship fifteen times (most recently in 2021) and won the Polish Cup nineteen times. In the 1995–96 UEFA Champions League season, they reached the quarter-finals, where they lost to Greek club Panathinaikos. Their local rivals, Polonia Warsaw, have significantly fewer supporters, yet they managed to win the country's championship two times (in 1946 and 2000) and won the cup twice as well. Polonia's home venue is located at Konwiktorska Street, a ten-minute walk north from the Old Town. Polonia was relegated from the country's top flight in 2013 because of their disastrous financial situation. They are now playing in the first league (2nd tier in Poland). Legia Warsaw's basketball team was one of the country's best teams in 50s and 60s. They are now participating in PLK, the highest-tier level of the Polish basketball. Famous people Further information: List of people from Warsaw Further information: Category:People from Warsaw Famous people born in Warsaw, clockwise from upper left: Maria Skłodowska-Curie, Benoit Mandelbrot, Robert Lewandowski and Samuel Goldwyn One of the most famous people born in Warsaw was Maria Skłodowska-Curie, who achieved international recognition for her research on radioactivity and was the first female recipient of the Nobel Prize.[264] Famous musicians include Władysław Szpilman, Frédéric Chopin and Witold Lutosławski. Though Chopin was born in the village of Żelazowa Wola, about 60 km (37 mi) from Warsaw, he moved to the city with his family when he was seven months old.[265] Casimir Pulaski, a Polish general and hero of the American Revolutionary War, was born here in 1745.[266] Other important people, who lived in Warsaw (although were not born here) are also Rosa Luxemburg and Ludwik Zamenhof. Tamara de Lempicka was a famous artist born in Warsaw.[267] She was born Maria Górska in Warsaw to wealthy parents and in 1916 married a Polish lawyer Tadeusz Łempicki.[268] Better than anyone else she represented the art deco style in painting and art.[267] Another notable artist born in the city was Wojciech Fangor. He was associated with Op art and Color field movements and recognized as a key figure in the history of Polish postwar abstract art.[269] Nathan Alterman, the Israeli poet, was born in Warsaw, as was Moshe Vilenski, the Israeli composer, lyricist, and pianist, who studied music at the Warsaw Conservatory.[270] Russian Jewish poet and essayist Osip Mandelstam, one of the foremost members of the Acmeist school of poetry was born in Warsaw while it was part of the Russian Empire. Other notables include Samuel Goldwyn, the founder of Goldwyn Pictures, mathematician Benoit Mandelbrot, physicist Joseph Rotblat, biochemist Casimir Funk, and Moshe Prywes, an Israeli physician who was the first President of Ben-Gurion University of the Negev. Warsaw was the beloved city of Isaac Bashevis Singer, which he described in many of his novels:[271] "Warsaw has just now been destroyed. No one will ever see the Warsaw I knew. Let me just write about it. Let this Warsaw not disappear forever", he wrote.[272] Notable sportspeople born in Warsaw include footballer Robert Lewandowski[273] and tennis player Iga Świątek.[274] International relations Twin towns and sister cities See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Poland Warsaw is twinned with:[275] Kazakhstan Astana, Kazakhstan (2002) Germany Berlin, Germany (1991) United States Chicago, United States (1960) Germany Düsseldorf, Germany (1989) Vietnam Hanoi, Vietnam (2000) Ukraine Kyiv, Ukraine (1994) Latvia Riga, Latvia (2002) Brazil Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (1997) South Korea Seoul, South Korea (1996) Taiwan Taipei, Taiwan (1995) Israel Tel Aviv, Israel (1992) Lithuania Vilnius, Lithuania (1998) Former twin towns: Russia Grozny, Russia (1997–2022)[276] Russia Moscow, Russia (1993–2022)[276] Partnership and friendship Warsaw also cooperates with:[275] Hungary Budapest, Hungary (2005) Argentina Buenos Aires, Argentina (1992)[277] United Kingdom Coventry, United Kingdom (1957)[278] Netherlands The Hague, Netherlands (1991) Japan Hamamatsu, Japan (1990) China Harbin, China (1993) France Île-de-France, France (1990) Turkey Istanbul, Turkey (1991) Spain Madrid, Spain (1981)[279] Philippines Manila, Philippines (2006) Norway Oslo, Norway (2006) France Paris, France (1999)[280] France Saint-Étienne, France (1995) Canada Toronto, Canada (1990) Austria Vienna, Austria (1991) Armenia Yerevan, Armenia (2013)[281] Former partner cities: Russia Saint Petersburg, Russia (1997–2022)[276] See also flag Poland portal flag European Union portal C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group Destruction of Warsaw Architecture of Warsaw Legia Warsaw List of tallest buildings in Warsaw List of honorary citizens of Warsaw Street names of Warsaw Tourism in Poland Various battles of Warsaw Various treaties of Warsaw Warsaw concentration camp Warsaw subdialect Warsaw Fire Guard Notes English pronunciation: /ˈwɔːrsɔː/, WOR-saw; Polish: Warszawa [varˈʂava] ⓘ; Latin: Varsovia or Varsavia Polish: miasto stołeczne Warszawa [ˈmjastɔ stɔˈwɛt͡ʂnɛ varˈʂava] ⓘ, abbreviation: m.st. 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Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaCode of ConductDevelopersStatisticsCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia FoundationPowered by MediaWiki Main menu WikipediaThe Free Encyclopedia Search Wikipedia Search Create account Log in Personal tools Contents hide (Top) Etymology Sources Geography Major cities Delta Toggle Delta subsection Channel changes Tributaries Climate change and the flooding of the Vistula delta Geological history Navigation Historical relevance Toggle Historical relevance subsection Main trading artery World War II See also References External links Vistula Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools Appearance hide Text Small Standard Large Width Standard Wide Color (beta) Automatic Light Dark Coordinates: 54°21′42″N 18°57′07″E From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia "Visla" redirects here. For the dog breed, see Vizsla. For other uses, see Vistula (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Fistula. Vistula Vistula in the Polish region of Kuyavia and southern Pomerania. Vistula River drainage basin in Poland, Belarus, Ukraine, and Slovakia Native name Wisła (Polish) Location Country Poland Towns/Cities Wisła, Oświęcim, Kraków, Sandomierz, Warsaw, Płock, Włocławek, Toruń, Bydgoszcz, Grudziądz, Tczew, Gdańsk Physical characteristics Source • location Barania Góra, Silesian Beskids • coordinates 49°36′21″N 19°00′13″E • elevation 1,106 m (3,629 ft) Mouth • location Mikoszewo, Gdańsk Bay, Baltic Sea, Przekop channel near Świbno, Poland • coordinates 54°21′42″N 18°57′07″E • elevation 0 m (0 ft) Length 1,047 km (651 mi) Basin size 193,960 km2 (74,890 sq mi) Discharge • location Gdańsk Bay, Baltic Sea, Mikoszewo • average 1,080 m3/s (38,000 cu ft/s) Basin features Tributaries • left Nida, Pilica, Bzura, Brda, Wda • right Dunajec, Wisłoka, San, Wieprz, Narew, Drwęca MapWikimedia | © OpenStreetMap The Vistula (/ˈvɪstjʊlə/; Polish: Wisła, Polish pronunciation: [ˈviswa] ⓘ, German: Weichsel) is the longest river in Poland and the ninth-longest in Europe, at 1,047 kilometres (651 miles) in length.[1][2] Its drainage basin, extending into three other countries apart from Poland, covers 193,960 km2 (74,890 sq mi), of which 168,868 km2 (65,200 sq mi) is in Poland.[3] The Vistula rises at Barania Góra in the south of Poland, 1,220 meters (4,000 ft) above sea level in the Silesian Beskids (western part of Carpathian Mountains), where it begins with the White Little Vistula (Biała Wisełka) and the Black Little Vistula (Czarna Wisełka).[4] It flows through Poland's largest cities, including Kraków, Sandomierz, Warsaw, Płock, Włocławek, Toruń, Bydgoszcz, Świecie, Grudziądz, Tczew and Gdańsk. It empties into the Vistula Lagoon (Zalew Wiślany) or directly into the Gdańsk Bay of the Baltic Sea with a delta of six main branches (Leniwka, Przekop, Śmiała Wisła, Martwa Wisła, Nogat and Szkarpawa). The river has many associations with Polish culture, history and national identity. It is Poland's most important waterway and natural symbol, flowing notably through Kraków and the capital Warsaw, and the phrase "Country upon Vistula" (Polish: kraj nad Wisłą) can be synonymous with Poland.[5][6][7] Historically, the river was also important for the Baltic and German (Prussian) peoples. The Vistula has given its name to the last glacial period that occurred in northern Europe, approximately between 100,000 and 10,000 BC, the Weichselian glaciation. Etymology The name Vistula first appears in the written record of Pomponius Mela (3.33) in AD 40. Pliny in AD 77 in his Natural History names the river Vistla (4.81, 4.97, 4.100). The root of the name Vistula is often thought to come from Proto-Indo-European *weys-: 'to ooze, flow slowly' (cf. Sanskrit अवेषन् (avēṣan) "they flowed", Old Norse veisa "slime"), and similar elements appear in many European river-names (e.g. Svislach (Berezina), Svislach (Neman), Weser, Viešinta).[8] In writing about the river and its peoples, Ptolemy uses Greek spelling: Ouistoula. Other ancient sources[which?] spell the name Istula. Ammianus Marcellinus referred to the Bisula (Book 22) in the 380s. In the sixth century Jordanes (Getica 5 & 17) used Viscla. The Anglo-Saxon poem Widsith refers to the Wistla.[9] The 12th-century Polish chronicler Wincenty Kadłubek Latinised the river's name as Vandalus, a form presumably influenced by Lithuanian vanduõ 'water'. Jan Długosz (1415–1480) in his Annales seu cronicae incliti regni Poloniae contextually points to the river, stating "of the eastern nations, of the Polish east, from the brightness of the water the White Water...so named" (Alba aqua),[10] perhaps referring to the White Little Vistula (Biała Wisełka).[citation needed] In the course of history the river has borne similar names in different languages: German: Weichsel pronounced [ˈvaɪ̯ksl̩] ⓘ, Low German: Wießel, Dutch: Wijsel, Yiddish: ווייסל Yiddish pronunciation: [vajsl̩] and Russian: Висла. Sources The Vistula rises in the southern Silesian Voivodeship close to the tripoint involving the Czech Republic and Slovakia from two sources: the Czarna ("Black") Wisełka at altitude 1,107 m (3,632 ft) and the Biała ("White") Wisełka at altitude 1,080 m (3,540 ft).[11] Both are on the western slope of Barania Góra in the Silesian Beskids in Poland.[12] Geography The Vistula can be divided into three parts: upper, from its sources to Sandomierz; central, from Sandomierz to the confluences with the Narew and the Bug; and bottom, from the confluence with the Narew to the sea. The Vistula river basin covers 194,424 square kilometres (75,068 square miles) (in Poland 168,700 square kilometres (65,135 square miles)); its average altitude is 270 metres (886 feet) above sea level. In addition, the majority of its river basin (55%) is 100 to 200 m above sea level; over 3⁄4 of the river basin ranges from 100 to 300 metres (328 to 984 feet) in altitude. The highest point of the river basin is at 2,655 metres (8,711 feet) (Gerlach Peak in the Tatra mountains). One of the features of the river basin of the Vistula is its asymmetry—in great measure resulting from the tilting direction of the Central European Lowland toward the northwest, the direction of the flow of glacial waters, and considerable predisposition of its older base. The asymmetry of the river basin (right-hand to left-hand side) is 73–27%. The most recent glaciation of the Pleistocene epoch, which ended around 10,000 BC, is called the Vistulian glaciation or Weichselian glaciation in regard to north-central Europe.[13] Major cities Vistula River Vistula River in the vicinity of Płock, Poland Vistula River near Bydgoszcz, Poland Medieval Wawel Castle in Kraków seen from the Vistula river Vistula River and the Warsaw Old Town Vistula River and Gdańsk Renaissance town of Kazimierz Dolny overlooking serene Vistula Granaries in Grudziądz seen from the left riverside of the Vistula river, 13th–17th century Vistula River seen from The Piłsudski Bridge in Toruń, facing upstream Agglomeration Tributary Wisła (Silesian Voivodeship) river source: Biała Wisełka and Czarna Wisełka Ustroń Skoczów Brennica Strumień Knajka Goczałkowice-Zdrój Czechowice-Dziedzice Biała Brzeszcze Vistula, Soła Oświęcim Soła Zator Skawa Skawina Skawinka Kraków (Cracow) Sanka, Rudawa, Prądnik, Dłubnia, Wilga (most are canalized streams) Niepołomice Nowe Brzesko Nowy Korczyn Nida Opatowiec Dunajec Szczucin Połaniec Czarna Baranów Sandomierski Babolówka Tarnobrzeg Sandomierz Koprzywianka, Trześniówka Zawichost Annopol Sanna Józefów nad Wisłą Solec nad Wisłą Kazimierz Dolny Bystra Puławy Kurówka Dęblin Wieprz Magnuszew Wilga Wilga Góra Kalwaria Czarna Karczew Otwock, Józefów Świder Konstancin-Jeziorna Jeziorka Warsaw Żerań canal (incl. several smaller streams) Łomianki Legionowo Modlin Narew Zakroczym Czerwińsk nad Wisłą Wyszogród Bzura Płock Słupianka, Rosica, Brzeźnica, Skrwa Lewa, Skrwa Prawa Dobrzyń nad Wisłą Włocławek Zgłowiączka Nieszawa Mień Ciechocinek Toruń Drwęca, Bacha Solec Kujawski Bydgoszcz Brda (canalized) Chełmno Świecie Wda Grudziądz Nowe Gniew Wierzyca Tczew Mikoszewo, Gdansk (Sobieszewo Island) Szkarpawa, Martwa Wisła Delta The river forms a wide delta called Żuławy Wiślane, or the "Vistula Fens" in English. The delta currently starts around Biała Góra near Sztum, about 50 km (31 mi) from the mouth, where the river Nogat splits off. The Nogat also starts separately as a river named (on this map [14]) Alte Nogat (Old Nogat) south of Kwidzyn, but further north it picks up water from a crosslink with the Vistula, and becomes a distributary of the Vistula, flowing away northeast into the Vistula Lagoon (Polish: Zalew Wiślany) with a small delta. The Nogat formed part of the border between East Prussia and interwar Poland. The other channel of the Vistula below this point is sometimes called the Leniwka. Various causes (rain, snow melt, ice jams) have caused many severe floods of the Vistula over the centuries. Land in the area was sometimes depopulated by severe flooding, and later had to be resettled. See (Figure 7, on page 812 at History of floods on the River Vistula) for a reconstruction map of the delta area as it was around the year 1300: note much more water in the area, and the west end of the Vistula Lagoon (Frisches Haff) was bigger and nearly continuous with the Drausen See.[15] Channel changes As with some aggrading rivers, the lower Vistula has been subject to channel changing. Near the sea, the Vistula was diverted sideways by coastal sand as a result of longshore drift and split into an east-flowing branch (the Elbing (Elbląg) Vistula, Elbinger Weichsel, Szkarpawa, flows into the Vistula Lagoon, now for flood control closed to the east with a lock) and a west-flowing branch (the Danzig (Gdańsk) Vistula, Przegalinie branch, reached the sea in Danzig). Until the 14th century, the Elbing Vistula was the bigger. 1242: The Stara Wisła (Old Vistula) cut an outlet to the sea through the barrier near Mikoszewo where the Vistula Cut is now; this gap later closed or was closed. 1371: The Danzig Vistula became bigger than the Elbing Vistula. 1540 and 1543: Huge floods depopulated the delta area, and afterwards the land was resettled by Mennonite Germans, and economic development followed.[15] 1553: By a plan made by Danzig and Elbing, a channel was dug between the Vistula and the Nogat at Weissenberg (now Biała Góra). As a result, most of the Vistula water flowed down the Nogat, which hindered navigation at Danzig by lowering the water level; this caused a long dispute about the river water between Danzig on one side and Elbing and Marienburg on the other side. 1611: Great flood near Marienburg. 1613: As a result, a royal decree was issued to build a dam at Biała Góra, diverting only a third of the Vistula's water into the Nogat. 1618–1648 Thirty Years' War and 1655–1661 Second Northern War: In wars involving Sweden the river works at Biała Góra were destroyed or damaged. 1724: Until this year the Vistula in Danzig flowed to sea straight through the east end of the Westerplatte. This year it started to turn west to flow south of the Westerplatte. 1747: In a big flood the Vistula broke into the Nogat. 1772: First Partition of Poland: Prussia got control of the Vistula delta area. 1793: Second Partition of Poland: Prussia got control of more of the Vistula drainage area. 1830 and later: Cleaning the riverbed; eliminating meanders; re-routing some tributaries, e.g. the Rudawa. 1840: A flood caused by an ice-jam[15] formed a shortcut from the Danzig Vistula to the sea (shown as Durchbruch v. J 1840 (Breakthrough of year 1840), on this map[14]), a few miles east of and bypassing Danzig, now called the Śmiała Wisła or Wisła Śmiała ("Bold Vistula"). The Vistula channel west of this lost much of its flow and was known thereafter as the Dead Vistula (German: Tote Weichsel; Polish: Martwa Wisła). 1848 or after: In flood control works the link from the Vistula to the Nogat was moved 4 km (2.5 miles) downstream. In the end, the Nogat got a fifth of the flow of the Vistula. 1888: A large flood in the Vistula delta.[15] 1889 to 1895: As a result, to try to stop recurrent flooding on the lower Vistula, the Prussian government constructed an artificial channel about 12 kilometres (7.5 miles) east of Danzig (now named Gdańsk), known as the Vistula Cut (German: Weichseldurchstich; Polish: Przekop Wisły) (ref map [14]) from the old fork of the Danzig and Elbing Vistulas straight north to the Baltic Sea, diverting much of the Vistula's flow. One main purpose was to let the river easily flush floating ice into the sea to avoid ice-jam floods downstream. This is now the main mouth of the Vistula, bypassing Gdańsk; Google Earth shows only a narrow new connection with water-control works with the old westward channel. The name Dead Vistula was extended to mean all of the old channel of the Vistula below this diversion. 1914–1917: The Elbing Vistula (Szkarpawa) and the Dead Vistula were cut off from the new main river course with the help of locks. 1944–1945: Retreating WWII German forces destroyed many flood-prevention works in the area. After the war, Poland needed over ten years to repair the damage. Nogat Leniwka Town Tributaries Remarks Town Tributaries Remarks Sztum Tczew Malbork Gdańsk Motława, Radunia, Potok Oliwski In the city the river divides into several separate branches that reach the Baltic Sea at different points, the main branch reaches the sea at Westerplatte Elbląg Elbląg shortly before reaching Vistula Bay Tributaries List of right and left tributaries with a nearby city, from source to mouth: Right tributaries Brennica—Skoczów Iłownica Biała—Czechowice-Dziedzice Soła Skawa—Zator Skawinka—Skawina Wilga—Kraków Drwinka Raba Gróbka Uszwica Kisielina Dunajec Breń Brnik Wisłoka Babulówka—Baranów Sandomierski Trześniówka—Sandomierz Łęg—Sandomierz San Sanna—Annopol Wyżnica—Józefów Chodelka Bystra—Bochotnica Kurówka—Puławy Wieprz—Dęblin Okrzejka Promnik Wilga—Wilga Świder—Otwock, Józefów Kanał Żerański—Warsaw Narew—Nowy Dwór Mazowiecki Mołtawa Słupianka—Płock Rosica—Płock Brzeźnica—Płock Skrwa Prawa—Płock Mień—Nieszawa Drwęca—Toruń Bacha—Toruń Struga Osa—Grudziądz Liwa Left tributaries Knajka—Strumień Pszczynka Gostynia Przemsza—Chełmek Chech Rudno Sanka—Kraków Rudawa—Kraków Prądnik—Kraków Dłubnia—Kraków Roporek—Nowe Brzesko Szreniawa Nidzica Nida—Nowy Korczyn Strumień Czarna—Połaniec Koprzywianka—Sandomierz Opatówka Kamienna Krępianka—Solec nad Wisłą Iłżanka Zwoleńka Plewka—Janowiec Zagożdzonka—Kozienice Radomka Pilica—Warka Czarna—Góra Kalwaria Jeziorka—Konstancin-Jeziorna Bzura—Wyszogród Skrwa Lewa—Płock Zgłowiączka—Włocławek Tążyna Zielona Brda—Bydgoszcz Wda—Świecie Wierzyca—Gniew Motława—Gdańsk Radunia—Gdańsk Climate change and the flooding of the Vistula delta Widespread flooding along the Vistula River in south-eastern Poland According to flood studies carried out by Zbigniew Pruszak, who is the co-author of the scientific paper Implications of SLR[16] and further studies carried out by scientists attending Poland's Final International ASTRA Conference,[17] and predictions stated by climate scientists at the climate change pre-summit in Copenhagen,[18] it is highly likely most of the Vistula Delta region (which is below sea level[19]) will be flooded due to the sea level rise caused by climate change by 2100. Geological history The history of the River Vistula and its valley spans over 2 million years. The river is connected to the geological period called the Quaternary, in which distinct cooling of the climate took place. In the last million years, an ice sheet entered the area of Poland eight times, bringing along with it changes of reaches of the river. In warmer periods, when the ice sheet retreated, the Vistula deepened and widened its valley. The river took its present shape within the last 14,000 years, after the complete recession of the Scandinavian ice sheet from the area. At present, along with the Vistula valley, erosion of the banks and collecting of new deposits are still occurring.[20] As the principal river of Poland, the Vistula is also in the centre of Europe. Three principal geographical and geological land masses of the continent meet in its river basin: the Eastern European Plain, Western Europe, and the Alpine zone to which the Alps and the Carpathians belong. The Vistula begins in the Carpathian mountains. The run and character of the river were shaped by ice sheets flowing down from the Scandinavian peninsula. The last ice sheet entered the area of Poland about 20,000 years ago. During periods of warmer weather, the ancient Vistula, "Pra-Wisła", searched for the shortest way to the sea—thousands of years ago it flowed into the North Sea somewhere at the latitude of contemporary Scotland. The climate of the Vistula valley, its plants, animals, and its very character changed considerably during the process of glacial retreat.[21] Biała Wisełka Biała Wisełka Vistula in southern Poland with the Silesian Beskids Vistula in southern Poland with the Silesian Beskids Vistula in northern Poland Vistula in northern Poland Przekop Wisły Przekop Wisły Vistula Shore, painted by Bogdan Cierpisz in 1898, oil on canvas Vistula Shore, painted by Bogdan Cierpisz in 1898, oil on canvas Navigation The Vistula is navigable from the Baltic Sea to Bydgoszcz (where the Bydgoszcz Canal joins the river). The Vistula can accommodate modest river vessels of CEMT class II. Farther upstream the river depth lessens. Although a project was undertaken to increase the traffic-carrying capacity of the river upstream of Warsaw by building a number of locks in and around Kraków, this project was not extended further, so that navigability of the Vistula remains limited. The potential of the river would increase considerably if a restoration of the east–west connection via the Narew–Bug–Mukhovets–Pripyat–Dnieper waterways were considered. The shifting economic importance of parts of Europe may make this option more likely. The Vistula is the northern part of the proposed E40 waterway, continuing eastward into the Bug River, linking the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea.[22][23] Historical relevance Vistula valley east (upstream) of Toruń Large parts of the Vistula Basin were occupied by the Iron Age Lusatian and Przeworsk cultures in the first millennium BC. Genetic analysis indicates that there has been an unbroken genetic continuity[clarification needed] of the inhabitants over the last 3,500 years.[24] The Vistula Basin along with the lands of the Rhine, Danube, Elbe, and Oder came to be called Magna Germania by Roman authors of the first century AD.[24] This does not imply that the inhabitants were "Germanic peoples" in the modern sense of the term; Tacitus, when describing the Venethi, Peucini and Fenni, wrote that he was not sure if he should call them Germans, since they had settlements and they fought on foot, or rather Sarmatians since they have some similar customs to them.[25] Ptolemy, in the second century AD, would describe the Vistula as the border between Germania and Sarmatia. Death of Princess Wanda, by Maximilian Piotrowski, 1859 The Vistula River used to be connected to the Dnieper River, and thence to the Black Sea via the Augustów Canal, a technological marvel with numerous sluices contributing to its aesthetic appeal. It was the first waterway in Central Europe to provide a direct link between the two major rivers, the Vistula and the Neman. It provided a link with the Black Sea to the south through the Oginski Canal, Dnieper River, Berezina Canal, and Dvina River. The Baltic Sea– Vistula– Dnieper– Black Sea route with its rivers was one of the most ancient trade routes, the Amber Road, on which amber and other items were traded from Northern Europe to Greece, Asia, Egypt, and elsewhere.[26][27] A Vistulan stronghold in Wiślica once stood here. The Vistula estuary was settled by Slavs in the seventh and eighth century.[28] Based on archeological and linguistic findings, it has been postulated that these settlers moved northward along the Vistula River.[28] This however contradicts another hypothesis supported by some researchers saying the Veleti moved westward from the Vistula delta.[28] A number of West Slavic Polish tribes formed small dominions beginning in the eighth century, some of which coalesced later into larger ones. Among the tribes listed in the Bavarian Geographer's ninth-century document was the Vistulans (Wiślanie) in southern Poland. Kraków and Wiślica were their main centres. Many Polish legends are connected with the Vistula and the beginnings of Polish statehood. One of the most enduring is that about Princess Wanda co nie chciała Niemca (who rejected the German).[29] According to the most popular variant, popularized by the 15th-century historian Jan Długosz,[30] Wanda, daughter of King Krak, became queen of the Poles upon her father's death.[29] She refused to marry a German prince Rytigier (Rüdiger), who took offence and invaded Poland, but was repelled.[31] Wanda however committed suicide, drowning in the Vistula River, to ensure he would not invade her country again.[31] Main trading artery For hundreds of years the river was one of the main trading arteries of Poland, and the castles that line its banks were highly prized possessions. Salt, timber, grain, and building stone were among goods shipped via that route between the 10th and 13th centuries.[32] In the 14th century the lower Vistula was controlled by the Teutonic Knights Order, invited in 1226 by Konrad I of Masovia to help him fight the pagan Prussians on the border of his lands. In 1308 the Teutonic Knights captured the Gdańsk castle and murdered the population.[33] Since then the event is known as the Gdańsk slaughter. The Order had inherited Gniew from Sambor II, thus gaining a foothold on the left bank of the Vistula.[34] Many granaries and storehouses, built in the 14th century, line the banks of the Vistula.[35] In the 15th century the city of Gdańsk gained great importance in the Baltic area as a centre of merchants and trade and as a port city. At this time the surrounding lands were inhabited by Pomeranians, but Gdańsk soon became a starting point for German settlement of the largely fallow Vistulan country.[36] Before its peak in 1618, trade increased by a factor of 20 from 1491. This factor is evident when looking at the tonnage of grain traded on the river in the key years of: 1491: 14,000; 1537: 23,000; 1563: 150,000; 1618: 310,000.[37] In the 16th century most of the grain exported was leaving Poland through Gdańsk, which because of its location at the end of the Vistula and its tributary waterway and of its Baltic seaport trade role became the wealthiest, most highly developed, and by far the largest centre of crafts and manufacturing, and the most autonomous of the Polish cities.[38] Other towns were negatively affected by Gdańsk's near-monopoly in foreign trade. During the reign of Stephen Báthory Poland ruled two main Baltic Sea ports: Gdańsk[39] controlling the Vistula river trade and Riga controlling the Western Dvina trade. Both cities were among the largest in the country. Around 70% the exports from Gdańsk were of grain.[37] Grain was also the largest export commodity of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The volume of traded grain can be considered a good and well-measured proxy for the economic growth of the Commonwealth. The owner of a folwark usually signed a contract with the merchants of Gdańsk, who controlled 80% of this inland trade, to ship the grain to Gdańsk. Many rivers in the Commonwealth were used for shipping, including the Vistula, which had a relatively well-developed infrastructure, with river ports and granaries. Most river shipping travelled north, with southward transport being less profitable, and barges and rafts often being sold off in Gdańsk for lumber. In order to arrest recurrent flooding on the lower Vistula, the Prussian government in 1889–95 constructed an artificial channel about 12 kilometres (7 miles) east of Gdańsk (German name: Danzig)—known as the Vistula Cut (German: Weichseldurchstich; Polish: Przekop Wisły)—that acted as a huge sluice, diverting much of the Vistula flow directly into the Baltic. As a result, the historic Vistula channel through Gdańsk lost much of its flow and was known thereafter as the Dead Vistula (German: Tote Weichsel; Polish: Martwa Wisła). German states acquired complete control of the region in 1795–1812 (see: Partitions of Poland), as well as during the World Wars, in 1914–1918 and 1939–1945. From 1867 to 1917, after the collapse of the January Uprising (1863–1865), the Russian tsarist administration called the Kingdom of Poland the Vistula Land.[40] Almost 75% of the territory of interbellum Poland was drained northward into the Baltic Sea by the Vistula (total area of drainage basin of the Vistula within boundaries of the Second Polish Republic was 180,300 km2 (69,600 sq mi), the Niemen (51,600 km2 [19,900 sq mi]), the Oder (46,700 km2 [18,000 sq mi]) and the Daugava (10,400 km2 [4,000 sq mi]). In 1920 the decisive battle of the Polish–Soviet War Battle of Warsaw (sometimes referred to as the Miracle at the Vistula), was fought as Red Army forces commanded by Mikhail Tukhachevsky approached the Polish capital of Warsaw and nearby Modlin Fortress by the river's mouth.[citation needed] The 11th century Benedictine Abbey in Tyniec overlooks the Vistula. The 11th century Benedictine Abbey in Tyniec overlooks the Vistula. Vistula River near the Duke of Masovia Castle in Czersk Vistula River near the Duke of Masovia Castle in Czersk Vistula River in Warsaw near the end of the 16th century. The right side shows the Sigismund Augustus bridge built 1568–1573 by Erazm Cziotko (c. 500 m (1,600 ft) long).[41] Vistula River in Warsaw near the end of the 16th century. The right side shows the Sigismund Augustus bridge built 1568–1573 by Erazm Cziotko (c. 500 m (1,600 ft) long).[41] Vistula river (Vistvla fluvivs) in Toruń in 1641 Vistula river (Vistvla fluvivs) in Toruń in 1641 Jewish Feast of Trumpets (Polish: Święto trąbek) at the banks of the Vistula, Aleksander Gierymski, 1884 Jewish Feast of Trumpets (Polish: Święto trąbek) at the banks of the Vistula, Aleksander Gierymski, 1884 Kierbedź Bridge over the Vistula in Warsaw (c. 1900). This framework bridge was constructed by Stanisław Kierbedź in 1850–1864. It was destroyed by the Germans in 1944.[42] Kierbedź Bridge over the Vistula in Warsaw (c. 1900). This framework bridge was constructed by Stanisław Kierbedź in 1850–1864. It was destroyed by the Germans in 1944.[42] Vistula River in spa town Wisła (1939) just before the World War II Vistula River in spa town Wisła (1939) just before the World War II World War II The Polish September campaign included battles over control of the mouth of the Vistula, and of the city of Gdańsk, close to the river delta. During the Invasion of Poland (1939), after the initial battles in Pomerelia, the remains of the Polish Army of Pomerania withdrew to the southern bank of the Vistula.[43] After defending Toruń for several days, the army withdrew further south under pressure of the overall strained strategic situation, and took part in the main battle of Bzura.[43] The Auschwitz complex of concentration camps was at the confluence of the Vistula and the Soła rivers.[44] Ashes of murdered Auschwitz victims were dumped into the river.[45] During World War II prisoners of war from the Nazi Stalag XX-B camp were assigned to cut ice blocks from the River Vistula. The ice would then be transported by truck to the local beer houses.[citation needed] The 1944 Warsaw Uprising was planned with the expectation that the Soviet forces, who had arrived in the course of their offensive and were waiting on the other side of the Vistula River in full force, would help in the battle for Warsaw.[46] However, the Soviets let down the Poles, stopping their advance at the Vistula and branding the insurgents as criminals in radio broadcasts.[46][47][48] In early 1945, in the Vistula–Oder Offensive, the Red Army crossed the Vistula and drove the German Wehrmacht back past the Oder river in Germany. After the war in late 1946, the former Austrian SS member Amon Göth was sentenced to death and hung on 13 September at the Montelupich Prison in Kraków, not far from the site of the Płaszów camp, the camp of which he was commandant throughout The Holocaust. His remains were cremated and the ashes thrown in the Vistula River.[49] See also Geography of Poland Rivers of Poland Vistula Lagoon Vistula Spit References "Vistula River". pomorskie.travel. Archived from the original on 13 August 2018. Retrieved 13 August 2018. Vistula - the most important and the longest river in Poland, and the largest river in the area of the Baltic Sea. The length of Vistula is 1047 km. "Top Ten Longest Rivers in Europe". www.top-ten-10.com. Archived from the original on 7 August 2018. Retrieved 13 August 2018. Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Poland 2017, Statistics Poland, p. 85-86 Barania Góra - Tam, gdzie biją źródła Wisły at PolskaNiezwykla.pl Morys-Twarowski, Michael (8 February 2016). Polskie Imperium. Otwarte. ISBN 978-83-240-3074-3 – via Google Books. Bartmiński, Jerzy (30 March 2006). Język - wartości - polityka: zmiany rozumienia nazw wartości w okresie transformacji ustrojowej w Polsce: raport z badań empirycznych. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej. ISBN 978-83-227-2503-0 – via Google Books. Trawkowski, StanisŁaw Trawkowski (30 March 1966). "Jak powstawaŁa Polska". Wiedza Powszechna – via Google Books. D.Q. Adams, Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture (London: Fitzroy–Dearborn, 1997), 207. William Napier (20 November 2005). "Building a Library: The Fall of Rome". findarticles.com. Independent Newspapers UK Limited. Retrieved 1 April 2009. [dead link] Długosz, Jan. Annales seu cronicae incliti regni Poloniae a nationibus orientalibus Polonis vicinis, ob aquae candorem Alba aqua ... nominatur Żaneta Kosińska: Rzeka Wisła. Nazewnictwo geograficzne Polski. T.1: Hydronimy. 2cz. w 2 vol. ISBN 978-83-239-9607-1. Wysota, W.; Molewski, P.; Sokołowski, R.J., Robert J. (2009). "Record of the Vistula ice lobe advances in the Late Weichselian glacial sequence in north-central Poland". Quaternary International. 207 (1–2): 26–41. Bibcode:2009QuInt.207...26W. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2008.12.015. "map dated 1899 of parts of Poland". Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 15 July 2018. CYBERSKI, JERZY; GRZEŚ, MAREK; GUTRY-KORYCKA, MAŁGORZATA; NACHLIK, ELŻBIETA; KUNDZEWICZ, ZBIGNIEW W. (1 October 2006). "History of floods on the River Vistula". Hydrological Sciences Journal. 51 (5): 799–817. Bibcode:2006HydSJ..51..799C. doi:10.1623/hysj.51.5.799. S2CID 214652302. Zbigniew Pruszaka; Elżbieta Zawadzka (2008). "Potential Implications of Sea-Level Rise for Poland". Journal of Coastal Research. 242: 410–422. doi:10.2112/07A-0014.1. S2CID 130427456. "Final International ASTRA conference in Espoo, Finland, 10–11 December 2007". www.astra-project.org. Archived from the original on 17 November 2021. Retrieved 23 October 2009. Matt McGrath (12 March 2009). "Climate scenarios 'being realised'". BBC News. Retrieved 23 October 2009. "Hydrology and morphology of two river mouth regions (temperate Vistula Delta and subtropical Red River Delta)" (PDF). www.iopan.gda.pl. Retrieved 23 October 2009. Państwowy Instytut Geologiczny (State Geological Institute), Warsaw, "Geologiczna Historia Wisły" R. Mierzejewski, Państwowa Wyższa Szkoła Filmowa, Telewizyjna I Teatralna im. Leona Schiller w Łodzi, Narodziny rzeki Weston, Phoebe (23 December 2020). "Chernobyl fears resurface as river dredging begins in exclusion zone". The Guardian. Retrieved 27 December 2020. Alexandra St John Murphy (4 May 2020). "The E40 Waterway: The Polish Dimension". Eurasia Daily Monitor. 17 (61). The Jamestown Foundation. Retrieved 27 December 2020. Jędrzej Giertych. "Tysiąc lat historii narodu polskiego" (in Polish). www.chipublib.org. Retrieved 3 April 2009. "De Origine et Situ Germanorum Liber by Tacitus Latin Text". 12 November 2007. Archived from the original on 12 November 2007. Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "The Augustów Canal (Kanal Augustowski) - UNESCO World Heritage Centre". whc.unesco.org. Retrieved 13 August 2018. "Suwalszczyzna - Suwalki Region". www.suwalszczyzna.pl. Archived from the original on 7 July 2014. Retrieved 13 August 2018. Jan M. Piskorski (1999). Pommern im Wandel der Zeit (in German). Zamek Książąt Pomorskich. ISBN 978-83-906184-8-7. p.29 Paul Havers. "The Legend of Wanda". www.kresy.co.uk. Archived from the original on 5 February 2012. Retrieved 31 March 2009. Leszek Paweł Słupecki. "The Krakus' and Wanda's Burial Mounds of Cracow" (PDF). sms.zrc-sazu.si. Retrieved 31 March 2009. p.84 "Wanda". www.brooklynmuseum.org. Retrieved 31 March 2009. Władysław Parczewski; Jerzy Pruchnicki. "Vistula River". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 3 April 2009. "History of the City Gdańsk". www.en.gdansk.gda.pl. Archived from the original on 17 October 2012. Retrieved 3 April 2009. Rosamond McKitterick; Timothy Reuter; David Abulafia; C. T. Allmand (1995). The New Cambridge Medieval History: c. 1198–c. 1300. Vol. 5. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-36289-4. Krzysztof Mikulski. "Dzieje dawnego Torunia" (in Polish). www.mowiawieki.pl. Archived from the original on 18 July 2011. Retrieved 3 April 2009. Oskar Halecki; Antony Polonsky (1978). A history of Poland (in German). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7100-8647-1. p.35 Krzysztof Olszewski (2007). The Rise and Decline of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth due to Grain Trade. a: p. 6, b: p. 7, c: p. 5, d: p. 5 "Gdańsk (Poland)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 3 April 2009. "Stephen Bathory (king of Poland)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 3 April 2009. "The name of the kingdom was changed to Privislinsky Krai, which was reduced to a tsarist province; it lost all autonomy and separate administrative institutions". Richard C. Frucht (2008). Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture. ABC-CLIO. p. 19. ISBN 978-1-57607-800-6. Jerzy S. Majewski (29 April 2004). "Most Zygmunta Augusta" (in Polish). miasta.gazeta.pl. Retrieved 25 October 2009. "SEPTEMBER 13, 1944". www.1944.pl. Archived from the original on 23 May 2006. Retrieved 25 October 2009. Marek Jan Chodakiewicz (1978). Between Nazis and Soviets: Occupation Politics in Poland, 1939–1947. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-0484-2. the US Holocaust Memorial Museum, Holocaust Encyclopedia, Auschwitz Environs, Summer 1944, online map Archived 6 May 2009 at the Wayback Machine Auschwitz-Birkenau: History & Overview Jewish Virtual Library "Warsaw Uprising of 1944". www.warsawuprising.com. Archived from the original on 3 August 2018. Retrieved 14 July 2008. The Uprising remained the ultimate symbol of Communist betrayal and bad faith for Poles. John Radzilowski. "Warsaw Uprising". ww2db.com. Retrieved 25 March 2010. The Warsaw Rising was termed a "criminal organization" Radzilowski, John (2009). "Remembrance and Recovery: The Museum of the Warsaw Rising and the Memory of World War II in Post-communist Poland". The Public Historian. 31 (4): 143–158. doi:10.1525/tph.2009.31.4.143. Crowe, David (2004). Oskar Schindler: The Untold Account of His Life, Wartime Activities, and the True Story Behind the List (First ed.). Westview Press. ISBN 978-0813333755. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Vistula. Geographic data related to Vistula at OpenStreetMap Vistula at GEOnet Names Server "History of Floods on the River Vistula", Hydrological Sciences Journal vte Vistula River vte Tributaries of the Vistula River vte Poland Rivers of Poland by watershed Authority control databases Edit this at Wikidata Categories: Vistula basinCieszyn SilesiaRivers of Kuyavian-Pomeranian VoivodeshipRivers of Lesser Poland VoivodeshipRivers of Lublin VoivodeshipRivers of Masovian VoivodeshipRivers of Podkarpackie VoivodeshipRivers of PolandRivers of Pomeranian VoivodeshipRivers of Silesian VoivodeshipRivers of Świętokrzyskie VoivodeshipWaterways in Poland This page was last edited on 22 August 2024, at 05:32 (UTC). 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(Dhauru) International relations Belarus–China relations Belarus and China agree to greatly strengthen mutual trade, financial, energy, and security cooperation, which includes enhancing industrial supply chains and collaboration with the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Greater Bay Area. (Reuters) Law and crime Treatment of women by the Taliban The Taliban bans women from singing, reciting poetry, or reading aloud in public and mandates that women must wear a veil in public under new laws approved by the Supreme Leader as part of efforts to combat "vice" and promote "virtue". (Al Arabiya) Politics and elections 2024 Indonesian local election law protests, 2024 Indonesian local elections Thousands of people gather outside the House of Representatives in Jakarta, Indonesia, as well as in other major cities across the country, to protest attempted changes to local elections law that would benefit the ruling coalition, in defiance of two recent Constitutional Court decisions. (BBC News) Police fire tear gas and water cannons at protesters attempting to storm the House of Representatives, prompting the Parliament to delay and eventually cancel the vote on the proposed changes. (AP) 2024 Venezuelan presidential election The Supreme Court of Venezuela certifies the results of the 2024 presidential election, denying claims that opposition candidate Edmundo González Urrutia won the election. (AP) Human rights in Afghanistan, Afghanistan and the United Nations The Taliban prohibits Richard Bennett, the United Nations special rapporteur on human rights in Afghanistan, from entering the country, accusing him of spreading propaganda. (DW) August 21, 2024 (Wednesday) edithistorywatch Armed conflicts and attacks Russian invasion of Ukraine Attacks in Russia during the Russian invasion of Ukraine August 2024 Kursk Oblast incursion The Ukrainian military reports that it used United States-made weapons to destroy several pontoon bridges constructed by Russia following its destruction of at least three bridges over the Seym river in Kursk Oblast. (Reuters) Mayor of Moscow Sergey Sobyanin states that Ukraine launched one of its largest drone attacks on the Russian capital, and claims that all drones were taken down without casualties or damage based on preliminary information. (Reuters) Eastern Ukraine campaign Pokrovsk offensive The Russian Ministry of Defense states it has fully captured the village of Zhelanne in Donetsk Oblast, Ukraine. (Anadolu Agency) Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy acknowledges advancements made by Russian Armed Forces on the Pokrovsk front, and announces the strengthening of regional Ukrainian positions in order to resist further advancements. (Reuters) Islamist insurgency in the Sahel Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger write to the United Nations Security Council to denounce Ukrainian support for rebel groups in the Sahel region of West Africa. (Reuters) Israel–Hamas war 2024 Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel Hamas fires two rockets from the Gaza Strip with sirens sounding in Sderot, Ibim, and Nir Am. (Middle East Monitor) Israeli incursions in the West Bank during the Israel–Hamas war, Israel–Hezbollah conflict, Israeli–Palestinian conflict One injured in Hezbollah launching 50 rockets, drone strikes and shelling on IDF's Tsnobar logistics site and several other IDF sites in the Golan Heights and Zar'it in northern Israel.(Al Jazeera) A Syrian national and Khalil al-Muqdah, a commander in the Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades, is killed in an Israeli airstrike in Sidon and Khiam in southern Lebanon. (Al Jazeera) (Al Jazeera) One killed and two injured in an Israeli airstrikes on a Hezbollah ammunition depot, an air defense system and the villages of Abu Sash, Wadi Hamool, Aita al-Shaab, Ramiya and Talousa of the Beqaa Valley. (Al Jazeera) Somali Civil War Nine people, including five security officers and four civilians are killed and dozens are injured in an Al-Shabaab suicide car bomb attack on a security checkpoint on the Mogadishu–Afgoye highway in Somalia. (Daily Post Nigeria) Business and economy Unemployment in the United States The United States Department of Labor issues a significant estimate correction stating that the U.S. economy added 818,000 fewer jobs between April 2023 and March 2024 than what was initially reported in July, the largest estimate revision since 2009. (AP) (CNBC) 2024 Canada railway shutdown Canada's two largest freight railroads Canadian Pacific Kansas City and Canadian National Railway announce a complete shutdown of services due to a contract dispute, shutting out its Teamsters-represented union workers. (Reuters) (AP) With regards to the rapid growth of the artificial intelligence market, Bloomberg alleges that technology companies are "concealing their actual carbon footprints" by invoking outdated emissions accounting rules. (Bloomberg) Disasters and accidents Atchutapuram pharmaceutical factory explosion At least seventeen workers are killed and 41 others are injured, many from severe chemical burns, in an explosion at a pharmaceutical facility in Anakapalli, Andhra Pradesh, India. (Indian Express) (NDTV) Twenty-eight people are killed and 23 others are injured when a bus carrying Shia Pakistani pilgrims to the Arba'in pilgrimage in Iraq crashes and overturns in Yazd province, Iran. (Reuters) Four bodies are recovered from the superyacht Bayesian that sank two days ago, bringing the death toll to five. The search for the last missing person is ongoing. (Reuters) Health and environment 2023–2024 mpox epidemic Thailand reports its first case of mpox in a 66-year-old European man who worked in an African country affected by the ongoing epidemic. (The New York Times) Several suspected cases of mpox clade 1b are reported in Somerset, England, United Kingdom. (Devon Live) Honduras reports five suspected cases of the new mpox clade. (Prensa Libre) Law and crime Hungary and the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Hungary–Ukraine relations A Hungarian law restricting or removing state support and accommodations for Ukrainian refugees not from regions directly affected by the Russian invasion comes into effect. (BBC News) Sanski Most school shooting Three staff members are killed in a mass shooting at a school in Sanski Most, Bosnia and Herzegovina. The perpetrator, who also worked at the school, is seriously injured after shooting himself. (AP) Four people, including three children, are killed in a house fire in Bradford, England, United Kingdom. Police say that the fire was started deliberately and that a suspect has been arrested under suspicion of murder. (BBC News) Politics and elections International reactions to the 2024 Venezuelan presidential election The United States drafts a punitive sanctions list of sixty Venezuelan government officials from the country's National Electoral Council, Supreme Court, and counterintelligence police agency for alleged electoral fraud. (Reuters) The Ukrainian parliament approves the Rome Statute treaty established by the International Criminal Court, thereby allowing the country to become a state party once the government ratifies with the Secretary-General of the United Nations. (Ukrinform) More August 2024 events... Time: 02:34 UTC|Day: 27 August ◀August 2024▶ S M T W T F S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 More August 2024 events... 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Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaCode of ConductDevelopersStatisticsCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia FoundationPowered by MediaWiki Main menu WikipediaThe Free Encyclopedia Search Wikipedia Search Create account Log in Personal tools Contents hide (Top) Teams Route Race overview Toggle Race overview subsection Grand Départ in the Netherlands Heading south into France Mountain stages in the Alps Results and reception Classification leadership Classification standings Toggle Classification standings subsection General classification Points classification Mountains classification Young rider classification Team classification References External links 2024 Tour de France Femmes Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools Appearance hide Text Small Standard Large Width Standard Wide Color (beta) Automatic Light Dark From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2024 Tour de France Femmes 2024 UCI Women's World Tour, race 22 of 27 Kasia Niewiadoma (Canyon–SRAM) celebrating her race victory Kasia Niewiadoma (Canyon–SRAM) celebrating her race victory Race details Dates 12–18 August Stages 8 Distance 949.7 km (590.1 mi) Winning time 24h 36' 07" Results Winner Katarzyna Niewiadoma (POL) (Canyon–SRAM) Second Demi Vollering (NED) (Team SD Worx–Protime) Third Pauliena Rooijakkers (NED) (Fenix–Deceuninck) Points Marianne Vos (NED) (Visma–Lease a Bike) Mountains Justine Ghekiere (BEL) (AG Insurance–Soudal) Youth Puck Pieterse (NED) (Fenix–Deceuninck) Combativity Demi Vollering (NED) (Team SD Worx–Protime) Team United States Lidl–Trek ← 20232025 → The 2024 Tour de France Femmes (officially 2024 Tour de France Femmes Avec Zwift) was the third edition of the Tour de France Femmes. The race took place from 12 to 18 August 2024 and was the 22nd race in the 2024 UCI Women's World Tour calendar. The race was organised by the Amaury Sport Organisation (ASO), which also organises the men's Tour de France. The race was won by Polish Rider Katarzyna Niewiadoma (Canyon–SRAM), beating defending champion Demi Vollering (Team SD Worx–Protime) by just four seconds. As well as taking second place, Vollering took the super-combativity award for the most combative rider. Pauliena Rooijakkers (Fenix–Deceuninck) took third place overall after her strong performance on the final stage. In the race's other classifications, Marianne Vos (Visma–Lease a Bike) won the green jersey of the points classification for the second time. Justine Ghekiere (AG Insurance–Soudal) took the polka-dot jersey as winner of the mountains classification. Puck Pieterse (Fenix–Deceuninck) took the white jersey as the winner of the young riders classification, which was awarded to the best-placed rider under the age of 23. Lidl–Trek won the team classification as the team with the lowest aggregate time among their three best-placed riders.. Overall, the race was praised by the public, media, teams and riders. Cycling Weekly noted that the "razor-thin" margin of victory demonstrated the "extraordinary level of competition in women's cycling and the depth of talent in the field", while Le Parisien considered that the race had "offered itself some guarantees for the future". Teams Main article: List of teams and cyclists in the 2024 Tour de France Femmes 22 teams took part in the race.[1] The teams were announced on 24 April 2024.[1] All 15 UCI Women's WorldTeams were automatically invited. They were joined by seven UCI Women's Continental Teams – the two best 2023 UCI Women's Continental Teams (Cofidis Women Team and Tashkent City Women Professional Cycling Team) received an automatic invitation, and the other five teams were selected by ASO, the organisers of the Tour.[1] A total of 154 riders from 30 nationalities started the race, with the Netherlands having the largest contingent (32 riders).[2] UCI Women's WorldTeams AG Insurance–Soudal Canyon–SRAM Ceratizit–WNT Pro Cycling FDJ–Suez Fenix–Deceuninck Human Powered Health Lidl–Trek Liv AlUla Jayco Movistar Team Roland Cycling Team dsm–firmenich PostNL Team SD Worx–Protime UAE Team ADQ Visma–Lease a Bike Uno-X Mobility UCI Women's Continental Teams Arkéa–B&B Hotels Women Cofidis EF–Oatly–Cannondale Laboral Kutxa–Fundación Euskadi Lotto–Dstny Ladies St. Michel–Mavic–Auber93 Tashkent City Women Professional Cycling Team Route Stage 8 finished at the top of Alpe d'Huez; 13.8 km (8.6 mi) long, which has an average gradient of 7.9% and features 21 hairpin turns. Due to the Paris 2024 Summer Olympics taking place immediately after the 2024 Tour de France, the 2024 edition did not take place immediately after the men's tour.[3] Instead, it took place in the short gap between the Olympic Games and the 2024 Summer Paralympics in mid-August.[3][4] In July 2023, it was announced that the Tour de France Femmes would have its first Grand Départ outside France — with three stage starts in the Netherlands, starting in Rotterdam.[3][5] It was rumoured that the race would have a summit finish on Alpe d'Huez,[6] with Cycling News noting that race organisers ASO seemed "keen to include at least one very famous climb" in each edition of the race.[7] In October 2023, the full route was announced by race director Marion Rousse.[8] It comprised seven days of racing with eight stages, covering a total of 946 kilometres (588 mi). The first three stages took place in the Netherlands, with two stages taking place on 13 August, a shorter stage followed by an individual time trial.[8] The race headed south towards Belgium using roads used by other classic cycling races such as the Amstel Gold Race and Liège–Bastogne–Liège. Entering France, the race continued south heading towards the two final stages in the Alps, with the race culminating with a summit finish at Alpe d'Huez at an elevation of 1,850 m (6,070 ft).[8][9] Alpe d'Huez was last featured in a professional women's race in the 1993 Tour Cycliste Féminin.[10] Global Cycling Network stated that the route seemed "practically tailor-made for the strengths, preferences and origins" of defending champion Demi Vollering.[11] Vollering welcomed the route, noting the stages in her home country of the Netherlands and stating that she "always wanted to ride Alpe d'Huez".[11][12] L'Équipe considered that the race would be decided on the final stage,[13] with British national champion Pfeiffer Georgi calling the ascent "brutal".[14] Stage characteristics[9] Stage Date Course Distance Type Winner 1 12 August Rotterdam to The Hague (Netherlands) 123 km (76 mi) Flat stage Charlotte Kool (NED) 2 13 August Dordrecht to Rotterdam (Netherlands) 69.7 km (43.3 mi) Flat stage Charlotte Kool (NED) 3 13 August Rotterdam (Netherlands) 6.3 km (3.9 mi) Individual time trial Demi Vollering (NED) 4 14 August Valkenburg (Netherlands) to Liège (Belgium) 122.7 km (76.2 mi) Hilly stage Puck Pieterse (NED) 5 15 August Bastogne (Belgium) to Amnéville 152.5 km (94.8 mi) Flat stage Blanka Vas (HUN) 6 16 August Remiremont to Morteau 159.2 km (98.9 mi) Hilly stage Cédrine Kerbaol (FRA) 7 17 August Champagnole to Le Grand-Bornand 166.4 km (103.4 mi) Mountain stage Justine Ghekiere (BEL) 8 18 August Le Grand-Bornand to Alpe d'Huez 149.9 km (93.1 mi) Mountain stage Demi Vollering (NED) Total 949.7 km (590.1 mi) Race overview Main article: 2024 Tour de France Femmes, Stage 1 to Stage 8 Demi Vollering was considered to be favourite for the general classification (GC) Ahead of the race, defending champion Demi Vollering was considered to be the pre-race favourite for the general classification (GC), following Vollering's victories at La Vuelta Femenina and other stage races in 2024.[15][16][17] Other contenders tipped for the general classification (GC) included Kasia Niewiadoma, Juliette Labous, Évita Muzic and Riejanne Markus.[18][19] Potential GC contender Elisa Longo Borghini would not take part in the race following a training crash earlier in August.[20] Lorena Wiebes, Marianne Vos and Charlotte Kool were considered favourites for the points classification for best sprinter, with Vollering and Niewiadoma tipped for the Queen of the Mountains (QoM) classification.[16][21][22] Shirin van Anrooij and Neve Bradbury were considered favourites for the young rider classification for best rider under the age of 23,[22] and SD Worx were considered favourites for the team classification.[16][23] Overall, the field of 154 riders had 18 of the top 20 riders in the world taking part – with Chiara Consonni and 2023 points classification winner Lotte Kopecky having skipped the Tour to focus on the Olympic Games.[2] Media coverage prior to the event was positive, with anticipation of the summit finish at the Alpe d'Huez and the Grand Départ in the Netherlands.[16][24][13] The prize fund remained at €250,000 (compared to €2.5 million for the men's tour), with €50,000 for the winner of the general classification – making it one of the richest races in women's cycling.[25] Grand Départ in the Netherlands Vollering in the yellow jersey following her win on stage 3 The opening three stages took place in and around Rotterdam in the Netherlands. Stage 1 of the Tour took place on 12 August, with a flat course to the The Hague. In a bunch sprint finish, Kool (Team dsm–firmenich PostNL) won the stage, after expected favourite for the stage win Wiebes (Team SD Worx–Protime) suffered a mechanical issue with her derailleur, meaning that she was unable to sprint for the line.[26][27] Kool therefore took the first yellow jersey of the race, as well as the green jersey of the points classification.[26][27] The Tashkent City Women Professional Cycling Team were criticised for its poor performance, with four of their riders abandoning the race after they were unable to keep with the pace of the peloton on the flat stage.[28][29] Stage 2 was a short, flat stage taking place on the morning of 13 August, with stage 3 taking place in the afternoon.[30] After nervous racing throughout the stage, Kool beat Wiebes in a sprint finish – with the bonus seconds available at the finish extending Kool's lead in the GC to 14 seconds, and maintaining her lead in the points classification.[31][32] Stage 3 was a 6.3 km (3.9 mi) individual time trial in central Rotterdam.[33] Loes Adegeest (FDJ–Suez) set a fast time of 7 min 30 s, with Dutch favourite Ellen van Dijk (Lidl–Trek) and double Olympic champion Kristen Faulkner (EF–Oatly–Cannondale) both setting times a second slower. Olympic time trial champion Grace Brown (FDJ–Suez) suffered a puncture, losing around 30 seconds as the short course allowed no time to catch up.[34][35] Chloé Dygert (Canyon–SRAM) then set a slightly faster time than Adegeest, with defending champion Vollering (Team SD Worx–Protime) then setting a time five seconds quicker. Wearing the yellow jersey, Kool set a time of 7 min 50 s – thereby falling to 33rd overall, but retaining her lead in the points classification.[34][35] Vollering therefore took the lead in GC, just three seconds ahead of Wiebes and five ahead of Dygert. Vollering was delighted with her stage win, tearily stating that she "really didn't see this coming".[36] Heading south into France Stage 4 was a hilly route heading south from Valkenburg in the Netherlands to Liège in Belgium, using climbs that feature in the races of Liège–Bastogne–Liège Femmes and the Amstel Gold Race.[37] With 35 kilometres (22 mi) to go, Puck Pieterse (Fenix–Deceuninck) began to pull away from the peloton on the Côte de La Redoute climb, before being chased back by GC contenders. Justine Ghekiere (AG Insurance–Soudal) attacked on the next climb, gaining a 20 second lead on the descent. The peloton then caught Ghekiere 300 metres from the top of the final climb, with Vollering, Pieterse, Katarzyna Niewiadoma (Canyon–SRAM) and Pauliena Rooijakkers (Fenix–Deceuninck) then pulling away from the peloton. Pieterse took the QoM points at the top.[38][39] Descending towards Liège, the trio of Vollering, Niewiadoma and Pieterse pulled away from Rooijakkers – with Vollering taking bonus seconds on a minor climb located around 11 kilometres (6.8 mi) to go. At the finish, Pieterse outsprinted Vollering to take her first stage win of the Tour.[38][39] Vollering retained her yellow jersey of the GC, extending her lead to 22 seconds. Pieterse took second place, the lead of the young rider classification as well as the polka-dot jersey of the mountains classification. Niewiadoma took third place, 34 seconds on GC behind Vollering. Kool retained her green jersey of the points classification.[38][39] Stage 5 took the riders south to Amnéville, entering France for the first time.[40] Pieterse extended her lead in the QoM classification by crossing summits ahead of the peloton. With teams preparing for a sprint finish, a sharp corner out of a roundabout with 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) remaining caught the peloton by surprise, with around 25 riders crashing at high speed. Riders who lost time included the yellow jersey of Vollering, 2nd placed Pieterse and young rider contenders van Anrooij (Lidl–Trek) and Bradbury (Canyon–SRAM).[41][42] Vollering took some time to remount her bike, and was visibly in pain as she rode towards the finish.[41][43] Two riders abandoned the race following their injuries sustained in the crash, with Pfeiffer Georgi (Team dsm–firmenich PostNL) suffering a fractured neck and broken hand.[41][44][45] A small group of remaining riders including Niewiadoma, Faulkner, Blanka Vas (Team SD Worx–Protime), Liane Lippert (Movistar Team), and Cédrine Kerbaol (Ceratizit–WNT Pro Cycling) pushed on towards the finish, fighting amongst themselves in the final kilometre. Finally, Lippert went in the final steep section, however Vas was strong enough to overtake her and take her first stage win in the Tour.[41][42] Niewiadoma took the GC lead, 19 seconds ahead of Faulkner and 22 seconds ahead of Pieterse. She expressed her delight in taking the yellow jersey, stating that "It feels very special". Despite her crash, Pieterse retained her lead in the QoM and young rider classifications. Vollering had crossed the line 1 min 47 s behind Vas, and fell to 9th place overall, 1 min 19 s behind Niewiadoma.[41] Vollering noted that she was glad not to "suffer any broken bones" given the speed of the crash.[41] There was criticism of Team SD Worx–Protime for not sending riders to support Vollering to the finish line, with Vas noting that her radio was not working.[46][42] Stage 6 took the riders further south on a hilly course to Morteau.[47] Ghekiere rode with two separate breakaways to take maximum QoM points on the first four climbs, with Marianne Vos (Visma–Lease a Bike) winning the intermediate sprint, to reduce the margin between her and Kool. After the final climb, Kerbaol attacked from the peloton, descending at high speed – gaining a 30 second lead with 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) remaining. Despite a final steep climb towards the finish, Kerbaol took France's first ever stage win at the Tour. She moved up to 2nd place overall, 16 seconds behind Niewiadoma. Behind Kerbaol, Vos won the group sprint for second place, thereby taking the lead in the points classification from Kool. Ghekiere took the polka-dot jersey of the QoM classification, with Pieterse maintaining her lead in the young rider classification.[48][49] 16 riders remained within two minutes of the overall lead, with 9 different teams in the top 10. Mountain stages in the Alps Pauliena Rooijakkers (Fenix–Deceuninck) and Demi Vollering (Team SD Worx–Protime) on Alpe d'Huez Katarzyna Niewiadoma in pursuit. Stage 7 was the first of two stages in the French Alps, with five categorised climbs on the longest stage of the Tour from Champagnole to Le Grand-Bornand, 166.4 km (103.4 mi) in length.[50] Early on in the stage, Kool – winner of stages one and two – abandoned the race. Riding with the peloton, Pieterse claimed the QoM points on the first climb, beating Ghekiere; her rival for the polka-dot jersey.[51][52] A group of six riders broke away from the peloton – including Vos and Ghekiere. Ghekiere subsequently took maximum QoM points on the next two climbs, extending her lead in the mountains classification. Vos then won the intermediate sprint, extending her points classification lead. The lead of the breakaway grew to around 5 minutes, approaching the last two climbs of the stage.[51][52] On the penultimate climb, the peloton worked hard to reduce the gap to the breakaway. Ghekiere attacked, attempting to solo towards the finish and gain further QoM points. At the top of the climb, Ghekiere had a lead of 2 min 30 s followed by a group including GC favourites such as Niewiadoma and Vollering.[51][52] Despite attempts by GC contenders, the gap to Ghekiere did not fall substantially throughout the climb. Reaching the top of the final climb, Ghekiere won the stage by 1 min 15 s ahead of Maëva Squiban (Arkéa–B&B Hotels Women), further extending her lead in the mountains classification. In the last kilometre, Niewiadoma tested the remaining GC contenders with a powerful acceleration, with only Vollering able to follow. At the finish line, Vollering overtook Niewiadoma to take 3rd on the stage, gaining four bonus seconds for her efforts and moving up to 8th overall.[51][52] Niewiadoma extended her overall lead to 27 seconds ahead of Pieterse. Kerbaol fell to third place overall, 10 seconds further back. Following the withdrawal of Kool, Vos now had an "almost unassailable" lead in the points classification.[51][52][53] Following the stage, media noted that Vollering had only one more stage to make up time, with Niewiadoma noting that Sunday would be "the most important day of my career and maybe my team's existence".[52][54][55] Stage 8 was the queen stage of the race, a 149.9 km (93.1 mi) stage from Le Grand-Bornand to a summit finish at Alpe d'Huez.[56] The riders tackled three categorised climbs – the second category Col de Tamié (9.5km with an average gradient of 4%), the hors catégorie Col du Glandon (19.7km with an average gradient of 7.2%) at an elevation of 1,924 m (6,312 ft), and finally the hors catégorie Alpe d'Huez (13.8km with an average gradient of 8.1%).[56] The race finished at the summit of Alpe d'Huez, at an elevation of 1,850 m (6,070 ft).[56] The stage started with a breakaway of 22 riders, including Ghekiere in the polka-dot jersey. On the Col de Tamié, Ghekiere took maximum QoM points, increasing her lead in the mountains classification over Pieterse.[57][58] The lead of the breakaway fell from 2 min 30 s to under 90 seconds as they approached the bottom of the Col du Glandon. The peloton pushed up the climb at a high pace, slowly reducing to a group of GC favourites. With 2.5 kilometres (1.6 mi) of the climb remaining, Vollering attacked from this group – with only Rooijakkers able to follow her. Niewiadoma stayed with Lucinda Brand (Lidl–Trek), Évita Muzic (FDJ–Suez) and Gaia Realini (Lidl–Trek), as Vollering and Rooijakkers quickly built up a lead of around a minute by the top of the Glandon. After a 20-kilometre (12 mi) descent into the valley, the pair had a lead of 90 seconds – putting them in the virtual yellow jersey.[57][58] On the flat valley road, Niewiadoma worked with Brand, Realini and Muzic to reduce the gap to the pair ahead. At the foot of Alpe d'Huez, with 13.8 kilometres (8.6 mi) of the stage remaining, the gap had fallen to 45 seconds. On the climb, Vollering and Rooijakkers pushed hard to increase the gap to over a minute – the pair needed a winning margin of around 1 min 10 s to take the yellow jersey. However, Niewiadoma worked with Muzic and Realini to stabilise the gap, with 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) of the climb remaining.[57][58] On the final part of the climb Vollering began to tire, with the gap to Niewiadoma falling to around 50 seconds. In the final metres of the stage, Vollering accelerated past Rooijakkers to take her second stage win of the Tour, taking 10 seconds in time bonuses for winning the stage. Around a minute later, Niewiadoma and Muzic crossed the finish line – with Niewiadoma therefore winning the yellow jersey by a margin of four seconds, the smallest margin of victory in Tour de France history.[57][59] Results and reception Classification podium, with (left to right) Puck Pieterse, Justine Ghekiere, Kasia Niewiadoma and Marianne Vos In the final general classification (GC), Kasia Niewiadoma (Canyon–SRAM) won the Tour de France Femmes with an advantage over defending champion Demi Vollering (Team SD Worx–Protime) of just four seconds. As well as taking second place, Vollering took the super-combativity award for the most combative rider. Pauliena Rooijakkers (Fenix–Deceuninck) took third place overall after her strong performance on the final stage.[60][61] In the race's other classifications, Marianne Vos (Visma–Lease a Bike) won the green jersey of the points classification for the second time, after winning it in the 2022 edition. Justine Ghekiere (AG Insurance–Soudal) took the polka-dot jersey as winner of the Queen of the Mountains (QoM) classification. Puck Pieterse (Fenix–Deceuninck) took the white jersey as the winner of the young riders classification, which was awarded to the best-placed GC rider under the age of 23. Lidl–Trek won the team classification as the team with the lowest aggregate time among their three best-placed riders.[60][61] Out of 153 starters, 110 finished the event.[62] Niewiadoma stated that the win was "a dream come true", noting that she had experienced a "rollercoaster of emotions" on the stage after Vollering accelerated away from her on the Col du Glandon.[63][64] Niewiadoma hoped that her victory would attract more women to ride and race.[61] Vollering expressed her disappointment in losing by just four seconds, stating "that's a bit sour for me at the moment".[61][65] Michel Cornelisse, the directeur sportif of Fenix–Deceuninck stated that the race had been "a dream", with Rooijakkers in third place overall and Pieterse winning the young rider classification.[66] Media praised the race, with The Guardian calling the stage to Alpe d'Huez an "epic finale",[61] L'Équipe stating that the race "surely exceeded all possible scenarios",[67] and Rouleur calling it "the best race ever".[68] Przegląd Sportowy said that Niewiadoma had "proved something to the unbelievers",[69] and Le Parisien considered that the 2024 edition of the race had "offered itself some guarantees for the future".[70] There was specific praise for Niewiadoma and her Canyon–SRAM team, as well as praise for Pieterse, Kerbaol and Ghekiere. There was criticism of Team SD Worx–Protime and their tactics, as well as the "logistical nightmare" of two stages on one day.[71][72] There was some disappointment regarding the lack of crowds on Alpe d'Huez, while noting the size of the roadside crowds were growing year on year.[73][74] Race director Marion Rousse stated that Christian Prudhomme, race director of the men's tour had told her that he was "jealous of the suspense of this race".[75] Cycling Weekly concluded that the "razor-thin" margin of victory demonstrated the "extraordinary level of competition in women's cycling and the depth of talent in the field".[59] There was anticipation for the 2025 edition of the race, with an increase in the length of the race to nine days, and with Rousse suggesting that French multi-discipline world champion Pauline Ferrand-Prévot and four-time Giro d'Italia Women winner Anna van der Breggen (coming out of retirement) would challenge for the victory.[71][72][76] Classification leadership Classification leadership by stage Stage Winner General classification Points classification Mountains classification Young rider classification Team classification Combativity award 1 Charlotte Kool Charlotte Kool Charlotte Kool[a] Cristina Tonetti Anniina Ahtosalo Ceratizit–WNT Pro Cycling Yurani Blanco 2 Charlotte Kool Audrey De Keersmaeker 3 Demi Vollering Demi Vollering Team SD Worx–Protime no award 4 Puck Pieterse Puck Pieterse Puck Pieterse[b] EF–Oatly–Cannondale Justine Ghekiere 5 Blanka Vas Katarzyna Niewiadoma Lidl–Trek Loes Adegeest 6 Cédrine Kerbaol Marianne Vos Justine Ghekiere Cédrine Kerbaol 7 Justine Ghekiere Julie Van de Velde 8 Demi Vollering Demi Vollering Final Katarzyna Niewiadoma Marianne Vos Justine Ghekiere Puck Pieterse Lidl–Trek Demi Vollering On stages 2 and 3, Marianne Vos, who was second in the points classification, wore the green jersey, because first-placed Charlotte Kool wore the yellow jersey as the leader of the general classification. On stages 5 and 6, Shirin van Anrooij, who was second in the young rider classification, wore the white jersey, because first-placed Puck Pieterse wore the polkadot jersey as the leader of the mountains classification. Classification standings Legend Denotes the winner of the general classification Denotes the winner of the mountains classification Denotes the winner of the points classification Denotes the winner of the young rider classification Denotes the winner of the team classification Denotes the winner of the combativity award General classification Final general classification (1–10)[77][78] Rank Rider Team Time 1 Katarzyna Niewiadoma (POL) Canyon–SRAM 24h 36' 07" 2 Demi Vollering (NED) Team SD Worx–Protime + 4" 3 Pauliena Rooijakkers (NED) Fenix–Deceuninck + 10" 4 Évita Muzic (FRA) FDJ–Suez + 1' 21" 5 Gaia Realini (ITA) Lidl–Trek + 2' 19" 6 Cédrine Kerbaol (FRA) Ceratizit–WNT Pro Cycling + 2' 51" 7 Sarah Gigante (AUS) AG Insurance–Soudal + 7' 09" 8 Lucinda Brand (NED) Lidl–Trek + 8' 06" 9 Juliette Labous (FRA) Team dsm–firmenich PostNL + 8' 07" 10 Thalita de Jong (NED) Lotto–Dstny Ladies + 8' 12" Final general classification (11–110)[77] Points classification Final points classification (1–10)[77][78] Rank Rider Team Points 1 Marianne Vos (NED) Visma–Lease a Bike 170 2 Lorena Wiebes (NED) Team SD Worx–Protime 110 3 Katarzyna Niewiadoma (POL) Canyon–SRAM 99 4 Demi Vollering (NED) Team SD Worx–Protime 85 5 Blanka Vas (HUN) Team SD Worx–Protime 75 6 Anniina Ahtosalo (FIN) Uno-X Mobility 73 7 Cédrine Kerbaol (FRA) Ceratizit–WNT Pro Cycling 67 8 Puck Pieterse (NED) Fenix–Deceuninck 61 9 Evita Muzic (FRA) FDJ–Suez 55 10 Justine Ghekiere (BEL) AG Insurance–Soudal 51 Mountains classification Final mountains classification (1–10)[77][78] Rank Rider Team Points 1 Justine Ghekiere (BEL) AG Insurance–Soudal 46 2 Demi Vollering (NED) Team SD Worx–Protime 34 3 Puck Pieterse (NED) Fenix–Deceuninck 25 4 Katarzyna Niewiadoma (POL) Canyon–SRAM 25 5 Pauliena Rooijakkers (NED) Fenix–Deceuninck 23 6 Valentina Cavallar (AUT) Arkéa–B&B Hotels Women 18 7 Yara Kastelijn (NED) Fenix–Deceuninck 14 8 Evita Muzic (FRA) FDJ–Suez 14 9 Silvia Persico (ITA) UAE Team ADQ 13 10 Sarah Gigante (AUS) AG Insurance–Soudal 11 Young rider classification Final young rider classification (1–10)[77][78] Rank Rider Team Time 1 Puck Pieterse (NED) Fenix–Deceuninck 24h 44' 35" 2 Shirin van Anrooij (NED) Lidl–Trek + 1' 07" 3 Marion Bunel (FRA) St. Michel–Mavic–Auber93 + 4' 12" 4 Neve Bradbury (AUS) Canyon–SRAM + 23' 05" 5 Maëva Squiban (FRA) Arkéa–B&B Hotels Women + 38' 52" 6 Fem van Empel (NED) Visma–Lease a Bike + 42' 59" 7 Francesca Barale (ITA) Team dsm–firmenich PostNL + 51' 51" 8 Linda Riedmann (GER) Visma–Lease a Bike + 1h 09' 13" 9 Anniina Ahtosalo (FIN) Uno-X Mobility + 1h 14' 28" 10 Julie De Wilde (BEL) Fenix–Deceuninck + 1h 25' 12" Team classification Final team classification (1–10)[77][78] Rank Team Time 1 United States Lidl–Trek 74h 07' 21" 2 France FDJ–Suez + 11' 52" 3 Spain Movistar Team + 35' 09" 4 Belgium AG Insurance–Soudal + 35' 51" 5 France Arkéa–B&B Hotels Women + 45' 52" 6 Netherlands Team SD Worx–Protime + 48' 45" 7 Australia Liv AlUla Jayco + 53' 48" 8 Belgium Fenix–Deceuninck + 54' 55" 9 Norway Uno-X Mobility + 1h 11' 51" 10 Germany Ceratizit–WNT Pro Cycling + 1h 19' 18" References "Discover the Tour de France Femmes avec Zwift 2024 teams!". 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Mickey, Abby (19 August 2024). "Scenes from the Alpe". Escape Collective. Retrieved 20 August 2024. "Tour de France femmes 2024 : deux ans après son lancement, la compétition a suscité l'engouement". La Croix (in French). 19 August 2024. ISSN 0242-6056. Retrieved 20 August 2024. Zidda, Giovanni (19 August 2024). "'Christian Prudhomme est jaloux' : Marion Rousse célèbre un Tour de France Femmes 'dingue'". RTBF (in French). Retrieved 20 August 2024. "J'ai fait la route avec Christian Prudhomme (le directeur du Tour de France hommes) et il m'a dit "je suis jaloux du suspense de cette course". ["I made the road with Christian Prudhomme (the director of the Tour de France men) and he told me "I'm jealous of the suspense of this race".] Azé, Maria (18 August 2024). "Marion Rousse fait le bilan du Tour de France femmes et annonce déjà une prochaine édition incroyable". RMC Sport (in French). Retrieved 20 August 2024. "Official classifications of Tour de France Femmes 2024". Tour de France Femmes. Retrieved 18 August 2024. "Tour de France Femmes Rankings Tissot Timing". Tissot Timing. Retrieved 18 August 2024. External links Official website vte Tour de France vte 2024 UCI Women's World Tour vte 2024 Tour de France« 20232025 » Categories: 2024 Tour de France Femmes2024 Tour de France2024 UCI Women's World Tour2024 in women's road cycling2024 in French women's sportAugust 2024 sports events in France This page was last edited on 26 August 2024, at 23:39 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 4.0; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaCode of ConductDevelopersStatisticsCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia FoundationPowered by MediaWiki Main menu WikipediaThe Free Encyclopedia Search Wikipedia Search Create account Log in Personal tools Contents hide (Top) Area of dispute History Toggle History subsection Conflict in Iran Toggle Conflict in Iran subsection Drivers of insurgency Toggle Drivers of insurgency subsection Foreign support Toggle Foreign support subsection Decline in insurgency Human rights issues Toggle Human rights issues subsection Effect of and remedies for the insurgency Toggle Effect of and remedies for the insurgency subsection See also Notes References Bibliography External links Insurgency in Balochistan Article Talk Read View source View history Tools Appearance hide Text Small Standard Large Width Standard Wide Color (beta) Automatic Light Dark Page semi-protected From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Insurgency in Balochistan Physical map of Balochistan, Pakistan (detailed map of Pakistan conflicts) Date July 1948 – present[13] (76 years and 1 month) Main Phases: Location Balochistan, Iran–Pakistan border: Pakistan Balochistan, Pakistan Iran Sistan and Baluchestan, Iran Status Ongoing[14][15][16] Operation Azm-e-Istehkam continues Intermittent series of multilateral talks underway[17][18] Belligerents Pakistan Forces involved: Iran[5][6] Forces involved: Baloch separatist groups BLA BLF LeB BLUF BSO (Azad) BNA (2022–2023) BRA (2006–2022) UBA (2013–2022) Sectarian groups Ansar Al-Furqan (since 2013) Jaish ul-Adl (since 2012) Harakat Ansar (2012–13) Hizbul-Furqan (2012–13)[7] Jundallah (2003–12)[8] Islamic State (2015-present)[9] ISIS-K (until 2019)[10] Islamic State – Pakistan Province (since 2019)[11][10] Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan (since 2007) Lashkar-e-Jhangvi (since 1996)[12] Sipah-e-Sahaba (since 1985)[12] Commanders and leaders Asif Ali Zardari (President of Pakistan; 2024–present) Shehbaz Sharif (Prime Minister of Pakistan; 2024–present) Ali Khamenei (Supreme Leader of Iran; 1989–present) Ebrahim Raisi † (President of Iran; 2021–2024) Karim Khan (POW) Nauroz Khan (POW) Balach Marri † Aslam Baloch, alias Achu †[19] Basheer Zeb[20] Abdul Nabi Bangulzai †[21] Hyrbyair Marri[22] Allah Nazar Baloch Brahumdagh Bugti[23] Haji Wali Kalati Surrendered[24] Mehran Marri[25] Javed Mengal[22] Sarfaraz Bangulzai Surrendered[26][27][28][29] Dad Shah † Abdolmalek Rigi Executed Abdolhamid Rigi Executed Muhammad Dhahir Baluch[30] Salahuddin Farooqui[31] Amir Naroui †[31] Strength Pakistan: 145,000[32][33] Iran Iran: Unknown BLA: Approximately 600 (2020)[20] Jaish ul-Adl: 500-600[34] Jundallah: 500-2,000 (before 2011)[8] Casualties and losses Pakistan Pakistan 1973–1977: 3,300 killed[35] Since 2000: 2,052 killed[36] Iran Iran 164 killed (security forces and civilians)[37] 1973–1977: 5,300 killed[35] Since 2000: 1,929 killed[36] Surrendered: 3,093 (2015–2019)[38] SATP – surrendered: 5,869 (since 2004)[36] c. 6,000+ civilians (1973–1977),[35] 4,608 civilians (since 2000)[39][36] and 497 non-specified killed in Pakistan[36] c. 140,000 displaced (2004–2005)[39] China 3 Chinese civilians killed 4 kidnapped 5 oil tankers damaged[40] The Insurgency in Balochistan is an insurgency[41][16] or revolt[42] by Baloch separatist insurgents and various Islamist militant groups against the governments of Pakistan and Iran in the Balochistan region, which covers the Pakistani province of Balochistan, Iranian province of Sistan and Baluchestan, and Balochistan of southern Afghanistan. Rich in natural resources, this is the largest, least populated and least developed province in Pakistan and Iran,[43] and[44] armed groups demand greater control of the province's natural resources and political autonomy. Baloch separatists have attacked civilians from other ethnicities throughout the province.[45] In the 2010s, attacks against the Shia community by sectarian groups—though not always directly related to the political struggle—have risen, contributing to tensions in Balochistan.[46][47] In Pakistan, the ethnic separatist insurgency is low-scale but ongoing mainly in southern Balochistan, as well as sectarian and religiously motivated militancy concentrated mainly in northern and central Balochistan.[48] In Pakistan's Balochistan province, insurgencies by Baloch nationalists have been fought in 1948-50, 1958–60, 1962–63 and 1973–1977, with an ongoing low-level insurgency beginning in 2003.[49] This insurgency has begun to weaken. In an article titled "The End of Pakistan's Baloch Insurgency?", Baloch analyst Malik Siraj Akbar reported that Baloch militants had begun killing their own commanders.[50] Furthermore, separatists in recent times have also accused their own groups of being involved in wide spread crime, robbery and rapes against Baloch women, with some claiming that what started as an idealistic political fight for their people's rights has turned into gangs extorting, kidnapping and even raping locals.[51] However, Akbar called anger towards provincial Chief Minister Abdul Malik Baloch "growing and often uncontrollable".[52] Baloch militants have taken some reconciliation offers from the government and offered to hand in their weapons. In April 2016, four militant commanders and 144 militants had surrendered under reconciliation.[53] 600 rebels were killed and 1,025 surrendered after accepting reconciliation as of August 2016.[54] In April 2017, another 500 Baloch rebels surrendered to the state, including members of BRA, UBA, and LeB.[55] Baloch separatists argue they are economically marginalised and poor compared to the rest of Pakistan.[56][44] The Balochistan Liberation Army, designated as a terrorist organisation by Pakistan, the United Kingdom[57] and the United States,[58] is the most widely known Baloch separatist group. Since 2000 it has conducted numerous deadly attacks on Pakistani military troops, police, journalists, civilians and education institutions. Other separatist groups include Lashkar-e-Balochistan and the Balochistan Liberation United Front (BLUF).[59][60][61][62] Human rights activists have accused nationalist militants, Government of Pakistan and Iran of human rights abuses in its suppression of the insurgency.[63] The News International reported in 2012 that a Gallup survey conducted for the DFID revealed that most of the Balochistan province does not support independence from Pakistan, with only 37% of ethnic Baloch and 12% of Pashtuns in Balochistan favoring independence. However, 67% of Balochistan's population favored greater provincial autonomy, including 79% of ethnic Baloch and 53% of Pashtuns in the province.[64] Area of dispute Historical Balochistan covers the southern part of the Iranian Sistan and Baluchestan Province in the west, the Pakistani province of Balochistan in the east, and, in the northwest, part of Afghanistan's Helmand Province. The Gulf of Oman forms its southern border. Mountains and desert make up much of the region's terrain. A majority of Baloch inhabit the region of Balochistan that predominantly falls within Pakistan's borders. Geographically, Balochistan is the largest province of Pakistan (comprising 44% of the country's total area), but it is the least developed and least inhabited, comprising only 5% of the total population.[65] Sunni Islam is the predominant religion throughout the Balochistan region.[66] Stuart Notholt, in his Atlas of Ethnic Conflict, describes the unrest in Balochistan as a "nationalist/self-determination conflict".[67] History Background The origins of the secessionist movement are believed to have started around the uncertainty regarding the Khanate of Kalat, established in 1666 by Mir Ahmad. The Khanate of Kalat occupied central portions of territory in present day Balochistan, and was one of the four princely states of the modern day province under British rule, namely Makran, Las Bela, Kharan and Kalat.[68] Under Nasir I of Kalat in 1758, who accepted the Afghan paramountcy, the boundaries of Kalat stretched up to Dera Ghazi Khan in the east and Bandar Abbas in the west. However, in November 1839, the British invaded Kalat, and the Khan was killed in action during the invasion. Afterwards, the British influence in the region gradually grew. In 1869, the British Political Agent Robert Groves Sandeman ended up mediating a dispute between the Khan of Kalat and the Sardars of Balochistan, and established the British primacy in the region. The tribal areas of Marri, Bugti, Khetran and Chaghi were brought under the direct administration of a British Agent, eventually to become the Chief Commissioner's Province of Balochistan. Lasbela and Kharan were declared Special Areas with a different political system. The remaining areas of Sarawan, Jhalawan, Kacchi and Makran were retained as the Khanate of Kalat, supervised by a Political Agent of Kalat.[69] In the 20th century, the educated Baloch middle class harboured hopes of their independence from British colonial rule. They formed a nationalist movement Anjuman-e-Ittehad-e-Balochistan in 1931. One of their first campaigns was to fight for the accession of Azam Jan as the Khan of Kalat and a constitutional government to be established under him. They were successful in establishing Azam Jan as the Khan but the new Khan sided with the Sardars and turned his back on the Anjuman. His successor Mir Ahmad Yar Khan was more sympathetic to Anjuman but he was averse to upsetting his relations with the British. The Anujman, transformed into the Kalat State National Party (KSNP), continued to fight for independence from the British. It was declared illegal by the Khanate in 1939 and its active leaders and activists were exiled. This paved the way for the formation of new political parties, Balochistan Muslim League allied to the Muslim League in June 1939 and Anjuman-i-Watan allied to the Indian National Congress in the same year.[70] Led by Abdul Samad Khan Achakzai, the Anjuman-i-Watan was opposed to the partition of India and wanted a united India after the country gained independence from Britain.[71] During British rule Balochistan was under the rule of a Chief Commissioner and did not have the same status as other provinces of British India. The Muslim League under Muhammad Ali Jinnah in the period 1927-1947 strived to introduce reforms in Balochistan to bring it on par with other provinces of British India. During the time of the Indian independence movement, public opinion in Balochistan, at least in Quetta and other small towns in northern Balochistan, was overwhelmingly in favour of Pakistan. The pro-India Congress, which drew support from Hindus and some Muslims, sensing that geographic and demographic compulsions would not allow the province's inclusion into the newly Independent India, began to encourage separatist elements in Balochistan, and other Muslim majority provinces such as NWFP.[72] The Khan of Kalat lent great support to the Pakistan Movement but also desired to declare independence. Lord Mountbatten, however, made it clear that the princely states with the lapse of British paramountcy would have to join either India or Pakistan, keeping in mind their geographic and demographic compulsions.[72] On 19 July, Mountbatten called a Round Table Conference meeting between representatives of the State of Kalat and Government of Pakistan. Mountbatten discussed with them the status of the Kalat State. The representatives of Kalat argued that Kalat, as per the treaty of 1876, was an independent and sovereign state and not an Indian state. Mountbatten accepted this position for the purpose of negotiation, although Kalat had always been a princely state. Thus, Mountbatten confined the topic of discussion to the leased areas of Quetta, Nushki, Nasirabad and Bolan. He explained that Pakistan rejected Kalat's claims that these areas should be returned to Kalat. Pakistan's position was that it would inherit all treaty obligations incurred by India to the foreign states. Kalat argued that the leases clearly stated that the other party besides Kalat was the British Government alone. Kalat argued that it was a personal agreement and there was no provision that the leases to the British would be inherited by others. Therefore, since the agreement was between Kalat and the British Government, Pakistan could not be the latter's successor party.[72] Pakistan did not agree that the agreement was personal as personal agreements by nature implied that only a particular person was involved. Mountbatten also said that according to international law, treaties such as the one being discussed were inherited by successors and not invalidated by a transfer of power. Mountbatten also suggested that in case there was no agreement the matter could be put before an Arbitral Tribunal.[72] Kalat wished to have further discussions on the matter. Kalat also argued that in case of a vote in the leased areas between joining Kalat and joining Pakistan then the vote would go in favour of the former. Pakistan did not agree that the vote would have such a result.[72] Kalat also expressed its deepest desire to remain on friendly terms with Pakistan and stated that it understood that Jinnah, who was anxious for a correct decision, wanted more time to study the issues between Kalat and Pakistan. Mountbatten, however, suggested that Jinnah not be brought into the discussions.[72] Mountbatten insisted that Kalat and Pakistan sign a standstill agreement, which both countries did. The Standstill Agreement also stipulated that both parties would discuss as soon as possible about their relationship concerning Defence and External Affairs.[72] According to the Article I, 'The Government of Pakistan agrees that Kalat is an independent State, being quite different in status from other States of India'. However, the Article IV stated: a standstill agreement will be made between Pakistan and Kalat by which Pakistan shall stand committed to all the responsibilities agreements signed by Kalat and the British Government from 1839 to 1947 and by this, Pakistan shall be the legal, constitutional and political successor of the British.[73] Through this agreement, the British Paramountcy was effectively transferred to Pakistan. However, without making any agreement with Pakistan and in violation of the Standstill Agreement the Khan of Kalat declared independence. Later on, the ruler of Kalat unconditionally signed an Instrument of Accession with Pakistan on 27 March 1948, contrary to the wishes of his state's legislature, being the last of all princely states to do so.[72] First conflict Main article: First Balochistan conflict Kalat acceded to Pakistan on 27 March 1948 after the 'strange help' of All India Radio and a period of negotiations and bureaucratic tactics used by Pakistan.[74] The signing of the Instrument of Accession by Ahmad Yar Khan, led his brother, Prince Abdul Karim, to revolt against his brother's decision[75] in July 1948.[76] Princes Agha Abdul Karim Baloch and Muhammad Rahim, refused to lay down arms, leading the Dosht-e Jhalawan in unconventional attacks on the army until 1950.[75] The Princes fought a lone battle without support from the rest of Balochistan.[77] Jinnah and his successors allowed Yar Khan to retain his title until the province's dissolution in 1955. Second conflict Main article: Second Balochistan conflict Nawab Nauroz Khan took up arms in resistance to the One Unit policy, which decreased government representation for tribal leaders, from 1958 to 1959. He and his followers started a guerrilla war against Pakistan, and were arrested, charged with treason, and imprisoned in Hyderabad. Five of his family members, sons and nephews, were subsequently hanged on charges of treason and aiding in the murder of Pakistani troops. Nawab Nauroz Khan later died in captivity.[78] Nawab Nauroz Khan fought a lone battle as the rest of Balochistan did not support the uprising.[77] Third conflict Main article: Third Balochistan conflict After the second conflict, a Baloch separatist movement gained momentum in the 1960s, following the introduction of a new constitution in 1956 which limited provincial autonomy and enacted the 'One Unit' concept of political organisation in Pakistan. Tension continued to grow amid consistent political disorder and instability at the federal level. The federal government tasked the Pakistan Army with building several new bases in key areas of Balochistan. Sher Muhammad Bijrani Marri led like-minded militants into guerrilla warfare from 1963 to 1969 by creating their own insurgent bases. Their goal was to force Pakistan to share revenue generated from the Sui gas fields with the tribal leaders. The insurgents bombed railway tracks and ambushed convoys. The Army retaliated by destroying the militant camps. This insurgency ended in 1969, with the Baloch separatists agreeing to a ceasefire. In 1970 Pakistani President Yahya Khan abolished the "One Unit" policy,[79] which led to the recognition of Balochistan as the fourth province of West Pakistan (present-day Pakistan), including all the Balochistani princely states, the High Commissioners Province, and Gwadar, an 800 km2 coastal area purchased from Oman by the Pakistani government.[citation needed] Fourth conflict, 1973–1977 Main article: 1970s operation in Balochistan The unrest continued into the 1970s, culminating in a government-ordered military operation in the region in 1973. In 1973, citing treason, President Bhutto dismissed the provincial governments of Balochistan and NWFP and imposed martial law in those areas,[80] which led to armed insurgency. Khair Bakhsh Marri formed the Balochistan People's Liberation Front (BPLF), which led large numbers of Marri and Mengal tribesmen into guerrilla warfare against the central government.[81] Assisted by Iran, Pakistani forces inflicted heavy casualties on the separatists. The insurgency fell into decline after a return to the four-province structure and the abolishment of the Sardari system. Fifth conflict, 2004–present See also: Turbat killings In early 2005, the rape of a female doctor (Shazia Khalid) at the Sui gas facility re-ignited another long running conflict.[citation needed] Her case and the unusual comment by then Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf about the controversy, stating on national television that the accused rapist, an officer identified only as Captain Hammad, was "not guilty",[82] led to a violent uprising by the Bugti tribe, disrupting the supply of gas to much of the country for several weeks.[83] In 2005, the Baluch political leaders Nawab Akbar Khan Bugti and Mir Balach Marri presented a 15-point agenda to the Pakistan government. Their stated demands included greater control of the province's resources and a moratorium on the construction of military bases.[84] On 15 December 2005 the inspector general of the Frontier Corps, Major General Shujaat Zamir Dar, and his deputy Brigadier Salim Nawaz (the current IGFC) were wounded after shots were fired at their helicopter in Balochistan Province. The provincial interior secretary later said that, after visiting Kohlu, "both of them were wounded in the leg but both are in stable condition."[85] However, a leaked 2006 cable from the Embassy of the United States, Islamabad noted that, "There seems to be little support in the province, beyond the Bugti tribe, for the current insurgency."[86] In August 2006, Nawab Akbar Khan Bugti, 79 years old, was killed in fighting against the Pakistan Army, in which at least 60 Pakistani soldiers and 7 officers were also killed. Pakistan's government had charged him with responsibility for a series of deadly bomb blasts and a rocket attack on President Pervez Musharraf.[87] In April 2009, Baloch National Movement president Ghulam Mohammed Baloch and two other nationalist leaders (Lala Munir and Sher Muhammad) were seized from a small legal office and were allegedly "handcuffed, blindfolded and hustled into a waiting pickup truck which is in still [sic] use of intelligence forces in front of their lawyer and neighboring shopkeepers." The gunmen were allegedly speaking in Persian (a national language of neighbouring Afghanistan and Iran). Five days later, on 8 April, their bullet-riddled bodies were found in a commercial area. The BLA claimed Pakistani forces were behind the killings, though international experts have deemed it odd that the Pakistani forces would be careless enough to allow the bodies to be found so easily and "light Balochistan on fire" (Herald) if they were truly responsible.[88] The discovery of the bodies sparked rioting and weeks of strikes, demonstrations, and civil resistance in cities and towns around Balochistan.[89] On 12 August 2009, Khan of Kalat Mir Suleiman Dawood declared himself ruler of Balochistan and formally announced a Council for Independent Balochistan. The council's claimed domain includes Sistan and Baluchestan Province, as well as Pakistani Balochistan, but does not include Afghan Baloch regions. The council claimed the allegiance of "all separatist leaders including Nawabzada Bramdagh Bugti." Suleiman Dawood stated that the UK had a "moral responsibility to raise the issue of Balochistan's illegal occupation at international level."[90] The Economist wrote: "[The Baloch separatists] are supported—with money, influence or sympathy—by some members of the powerful Bugti tribe and by parts of the Baloch middle class. This makes today's insurgency stronger than previous ones, but the separatists will nevertheless struggle to prevail over Pakistan's huge army."[59] — The Economist, April 2012 In the aftermath of Akbar Bugti's killing, support for the insurgency surged with a large amount of support coming from Balochistan's burgeoning middle class.[91] US-based exiled Baloch journalist and newspaper editor Malik Siraj Akbar writes that the ongoing Baloch resistance has created "serious challenges" for the Pakistan government, "unlike the past resistance movements", because it has lasted longer than previous insurgencies, has greater breadth—including the entire province "from rural mountainous regions to the city centers", involves Baloch women and children at "regular protest rallies", and has drawn more international attention—including a 2012 hearing by the US Congress. Islamabad has accused its neighbour India of supporting the insurgency in Balochistan.[50] However infighting between insurgent groups as of late 2014 has weakened the movement.[50] On 23 November Chinese Consulate was attacked by BLA fighters.[92] As of 2018, the Pakistani state was using Islamist militants to defeat Balochi separatists.[93] Academics and journalists in the United States have been approached by Pakistani Inter-Services Intelligence spies, who threatened them not to speak about the insurgency in Balochistan, as well as human rights abuses by the Pakistani Army or else their family would be harmed.[94] On 16 February 2019, armed men killed two Frontier Corps in Loralai.[95] On 17 February 2019, another attack took place on Pakistani security personnel in which four members of the Frontier Corps were killed in the Gardab area of Panjgur District.[96] On 15 October 2020, at least 14 security personnel were killed in the first incident after a convoy of state-run Oil & Gas Development Company (OGDCL) was attacked on the coastal highway in Balochistan's Ormara, Radio Pakistan reported.[97][98] On 27 December 2020, seven soldiers were killed in a gun attack on a Frontier Corps (FC) Balochistan post in Harnai district.[99] Through 2020, Pakistan recorded 506 fatalities (69 civilians, 178 SF personnel, and 159 militants), of which Balochistan alone accounted for 215 fatalities (84 civilians, 94 SF personnel, and 37 militants). The Province was a close second only to Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, which recorded 216 fatalities (61 civilians, 57 SF personnel, and 98 militants).[100] According to the PIPS report, Balochistan is the second most affected province by Pakistan in 2021. The report said that 136 people were killed in 81 terrorist attacks in Balochistan last year, which were carried out by religious militants and Baloch nationalist organizations. Of the 81 terrorist attacks in the province in 2021, 71 were carried out by banned nationalist organizations such as the Baloch Liberation Army, Balochistan Liberation Front, Baloch Republican Army and Baloch Republican Guards. According to the PIPS report, 95 people were killed in attacks by nationalist organizations. In addition, 14 people were killed in five terrorist incidents in Punjab and 13 in six terrorist incidents in Sindh.[101] On 18 January 2022, at least five people were injured on Tuesday when an improvised explosive device (IED) planted near a railway track in the Mashkaf area of Balochistan's Bolan district.[102] On 20 January 2022, at least three people were killed and over 20 others injured by a bombing in Anarkali Bazaar, Lahore. Spokesperson of the Baloch Nationalist Army, claimed responsibility for this attack and said that it targeted bank employees.[103][104][105] On 25 January 2022, militants stormed a check post belonging to Pakistani military in the Sabdan area of Dasht, Kech District in Balochistan killing at least 10 security personnel and injuring 3 others.[106][107] The clash lasted for five hours in which militants also suffered several casualties.[107] The militants also seized weapons that were present in the check post.[106] On 28 January 2022, at least four people were killed and 10 others were injured in a blast in Mat area of Sui in Balochistan's Dera Bugti district. Balochistan Awami Party (BAP) leader Sarfraz Bugti claimed that "Baloch Republican Army terrorists" were behind the attack.[108] On 30 January 2022, 17 people, including two policemen, were injured in a grenade attack in Dera Allahyar town of Jaffarabad district.[109] In January 2022, militants carried out six attacks in which 17 people were killed, most of whom were security forces (14 security forces; 3 civilians), and 32 people were injured, most of whom were civilians (26 civilians; 6 security forces).[110] On 2 February 2022, 9 militants and 12 soldiers were killed at Panjgur and Nushki districts of Pakistan's Balochistan province after forces responded to their attack. The Balochistan Liberation Army, claimed to have killed more than 100 soldiers at two military camps, claims rejected by Pakistan government.[111][112][113] On 4 February 2022, at Chaman, a town bordering Afghanistan at least six people were injured in a grenade attack at para-military post.[114] On 8 February 2022, a blast in Balochistan's Dera Murad Jamali town has killed one person and injured another two. A man identified as Dildar Ali was killed and two were injured.[115] On 2 March 2022, a massive explosion took place at Fatima Jinnah Road in Quetta killing three people including a Deputy Superintendent of Police (DSP) and wounding 25 others including two police personnel.[116] On 8 March 2022, at least seven security personnel were killed in an explosion in Sibi, several minutes after President Arif Alvi addressed a colourful concluding ceremony of the Sibi Mela at a venue.[117] On 15 March 2022, at least four soldiers of the Frontier Corps (FC) were killed and six were seriously injured when an improvised explosive device (IED) exploded near a security forces' convoy in the area of Sangan in Sibi, Balochistan.[118] On 7 February 2024, two bombings killed dozens on the eve of the 2024 Pakistani general election.[119] Conflict in Iran Main article: Sistan and Baluchestan insurgency In 2014 there were about two million ethnic Baloch in Iran.[120] In 1928, the new Pahlavī government of Iran was sufficiently well established to turn its attention to Baluchistan. Dost Mohammad Khan Baloch refused to submit, trusting in the network of alliances he had built up over the whole of the province south of the Sarḥadd. However, as soon as Reżā Shah's army under General Amīr Amanullah Jahanbani arrived in the area, the alliances dissolved. Dūst-Moḥammad Khan was left with a relatively small force and few allies of any consequence. The Persian army had little difficulty in defeating him. Once again Baluch political unity proved highly brittle. Dūst-Moḥammad eventually surrendered and was pardoned on condition he live in Tehran. After a year, he escaped while on a hunting trip. In due course, he was recaptured, and having killed his guard in the escape was hanged for murder.[121][122] Baloch activists complained that the new governance was centralised and dominated by the Persians, "forcing the Baloch community and other minorities to fight to protect their rights."[120] Baloch people in Iran have several grievances. The Shi'ite Islamic revolution perceived the predominantly Sunni Baloch as a "threat". Sistan-e-Balochistan, the province where Baloch have traditionally lived in Iran, has the country's worst rates for life expectancy, adult literacy, primary school enrolment, access to improved water sources and sanitation, infant mortality rate, of any province in Iran. Despite its important natural resources (gas, gold, copper, oil and uranium), the province has the lowest per capita income in Iran. Almost 80% of the Baloch live under the poverty line.[120] Attacks by insurgents In the early 2000s the radical Islamist group Jundallah became active in Balochistan. The al Qaeda-linked extremist organisation has branches in both Iran and Pakistan. From 2003 to 2012, an estimated 296 people were killed in Jundullah-related violence in Iran.[123] Attacks in Iran included bombings in Zahedan in 2007, which killed 18 people, and another bombing in 2009 that killed 20 people. In 2009, 43 people were killed in a bombing in Pishin. In July 2010, 27 people were killed in bombings in Zahedan. In 2010, a suicide bombing in Chabahar killed 38 people. Among the deaths in the Pishin bombings were two Iranian Revolutionary Guards generals: Noor Ali Shooshtari, the deputy commander of the Revolutionary Guards' ground forces, and Rajab Ali Mhammadzadeh, the Revolutionary Guards' Sistan and Baluchistan provincial commander.[124] In 2010 the leader of Jundallah, Abdolmalek Rigi, was killed, causing fragmentation of the group but not an end to insurgent attacks. In October 2013, the group Jaish al-Adl (JAA, Army of Justice), killed 14 Iranian border guards in an ambush in the town of Rustak, near the town of Saravan. Shortly thereafter, the Iranian authorities executed 16 Balochs, on charges ranging from terrorism to drug trafficking.[120] Another group, Harakat Ansar Iran (Partisan Movement of Iran, HAI) killed two Basij officers and wounded numerous civilians in an October 2012 suicide bombing against the mosque of Imam Hussein, in the port city of Chabahar (Sistan and Baluchestan Province).[120] According to analyst Daniele Grassi, "Salafism plays an increasingly central role" for the "post-Jundallah" militants of JAA and HAI. "The rhetoric of groups such as HAI and JAA uses strongly anti-Shia tones. The two groups often refer to the Iranian Islamic Republic as a Safavid regime, in reference to the Safavid dynasty which introduced Shiism in Iran." Iran is also concerned about anti-Shia co-operation between the two groups and ISIS.[120] Iran has accused America of supporting Jundallah "for years". The US government, which has officially designated Jundallah a terrorist organisation, has denied this charge.[125] Iran has been angered by JAA's use of Pakistani territory as a refuge, and has threatened military operations in Pakistan to counter insurgent groups "on several occasions".[120] Impact on Iran-Pakistan Relations See also: Iran–Pakistan relations Further information: Operation Marg Bar Sarmachar, 2024 Iranian missile strikes in Pakistan, and 2024 Iran–Pakistan border skirmishes Relations between Iran and Pakistan are generally peaceful, but accusations of harboring Baloch militants have stoked distrust on both sides.[126] In January 2024, the Iranian and Pakistani militaries successively attacked separatist targets in border areas. Iran's missile strikes and Pakistan's operation stoke regional tensions.[127] Drivers of insurgency In Balochistan, Pakistan, "drivers" of insurgency have been economic, cultural, involving immigration and human rights. The immediate reasons for joining one of the several separatist militant groups vary among militants with citing the allure of power and excitement, a desire to honor their centuries-old tribal codes, gaining recognition for their region's distinct ethnicity and even a belief in hard-line communism. Another cited reason by some is employment and funding to work as mercenaries for foreign state agencies.[128] Economic inequality Economic inequality, and Balochistan's status as a "neglected province where a majority of population lacks amenities" is a dimension in the conflict.[129][86] Since the mid-1970s Balochistan's share of Pakistan's GDP has dropped from 4.9 to 3.7%.[130] Balochistan has the highest infant and maternal mortality rate, the highest poverty rate, and the lowest literacy rate in Pakistan.[86][131] On the other hand, according to a report published in the Pakistani English-language Dawn newspaper, members of Balochistan's elite society, including provincial government ministers and officials, own "pieces of land greater in size than some small towns of the country", and had luxury vehicles, properties, investments and businesses valued at millions of rupees.[129] Development issues Gas revenue Balochistan receives less per/unit in royalties than Sindh and Punjab provinces, since Balochistan's wellhead price five times lower than in Sindh and Punjab (the gas wellhead price is based on per capita provincial income in 1953).[132] Furthermore, the government has returned little of the royalties owed to the province, citing the need to recover operating costs.[133] Consequently, Balochistan is heavily in debt.[134][135] Balochistan Province receives Rs 32.71 per unit on gas revenues, including a royalty of Rs 13.90, excise duty of Rs 5.09, and gas development surcharge of Rs 13.72. Many private individuals with gas deposits on their land also receive payments. Many Balochs argue that such royalties are too low.[136] In response, in 2011 Prime Minister Syed Yusuf Raza Gilani announced an addition of Rs. 120 billion (US$2.5 billion) to the gas development surcharge and royalty portion of the "Aghaz-e-Haqooq-e-Balochistan" package.[137] However, royalties often do not trickle down to the common people in Balochistan due to the corruption and wealth-hoarding of Baloch tribal chiefs. This has hindered the growth of infrastructure.[citation needed] Regional inequality Extensive road and rail links developed by British colonialists in northern parts of Balochistan province have brought greater economic development to areas mainly inhabited by ethnic Pashtuns, which has also heightened nationalism among ethnic Balochs living in the southern parts of the within the province.[135] Gwadar Purchased by the government of Pakistan from Oman in 1958, the construction of the megaport of Gwadar beginning in 2002 became another source of grievances. Baloch complain that construction of the port relies on Chinese engineers and labourers, and few Balochs have been employed. A parallel town for workers at Gwadar is being built close to the old one to segregate Balochs from the growing influx of outsiders. The Pakistani government has stationed soldiers in the area to secure it from insurgent attacks.[138][139][140] Multiculturalism and immigration Due to the historical shortage of skilled labour in Balochistan, skilled workers are often imported from other regions.[141] Their arrival means new industries can develop, boosting the local economy; however, nationalists argue that this creates resentment amongst the local inhabitants. After the Soviet invasion, around 4 million refugees from Afghanistan arrived and settled in the region which has resulted in substantial demographic imbalance.[142] Perceived marginalisation as a result of increased Pashtun migration from Afghanistan during the Afghan War drives the insurgency.[135] Education issues A major factor in the Balouchistan conflict is education, which nationalists feel has been neglected. The government of Pakistan recognises that importing skilled labour from other regions has caused tensions in the region, and has thus sought to encourage scholarships for Balochi students so they can participate in development programmes. The quota for Baloch students in Punjab university was doubled in 2010 under the Cheema Long Scheme, on the order of CM Shabaz Sharif. The provincial governments of Sindh, Punjab and KP said they would take steps to encourage Balochistan students to enroll and benefit from 100% scholarships.[143][144] Military response Many Balochis have not tended to look favourably on Pakistan and the army's intervention in politics as they see the military as dominated by Punjabis and the interests of the Punjabis (who make up 45% of Pakistan's population) and lacking Baloch representation.[86] In the insurgencies themselves, the military's "harsh response" has led to "a spiral of violence".[145] (See Human Rights Issues below.) A report by the Pakistan Security Research Unit notes, "Islamabad's militarized approach has led to ... violence, widespread human rights abuses, mass internal displacement and the deaths of hundreds of civilians and armed personnel."[131][146] According to the International Crisis Group the attempt to crush the insurgency as in earlier insurgencies is feeding Baloch disaffection.[147] Moderate Balochs have been alienated from the government by the imprisonment of civilians without charges, and routine kidnapping of dissidents.[145][Note 1] Foreign support Afghanistan Main articles: Afghanistan-Pakistan relations and Durand Line Afghanistan has provided sanctuary and training to Baloch separatists in 1948, in the mid-1950s, and more vigorously under the regime of Afghan President Mohammed Daoud Khan.[149] In the 1970s, Daoud Khan's government established training camps in Afghanistan, at Kabul[150] and Kandahar,[151] for Baloch rebels. These were the first modern training camps in the country.[152] The camps in Kabul were under the supervision and control of Republican guards.[150] The former Pakistani ambassador to the US, Hussain Haqqani, wrote that in the 1970s training camps were set up in Afghanistan by Daoud to support Baloch separatists in Pakistan.[153] According to a student paper, "Pakistan's fear that a communist Afghanistan would embolden the Baloch and Pashtun Marxist separatists in the western Pakistani province of Balochistan was confirmed when Daoud began supporting Marxist Baloch and Pashtun groups in eastern Afghanistan".[154] As president, Daoud started antagonising Pakistan [...] He set up a training camp outside Kandahar for Baluch rebels to foment trouble across the border in Pakistan... — Christian Parenti, Tropic of Chaos: Climate Change and the New Geography of Violence (2011), p.103[155] Daoud Khan ended hostilities against Pakistan following a 1975 Panjshir uprising led by Ahmad Shah Massoud against Khan's government. Visiting Pakistan in 1976, and again in 1978, Daoud Khan expressed his desire for peace between the two countries.[156] In 1978, however, he was removed from office by a communist coup in Afghanistan, after which Nur Muhammad Taraki seized power and established the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. Nur Muhammad Taraki reopened the Baloch training camps in Afghanistan and once again started offering arms and aid to Baloch rebels.[151] According to WikiLeaks cables published in 2010, the then-president of Afghanistan, Hamid Karzai, had been providing shelter to Brahumdagh Bugti for several years.[157][158] Brahumdagh Bugti, along with some 20 separatists, had fled to Afghanistan in 2006, and his presence in Afghanistan had created tensions between Pakistan and Afghanistan. In 2007 Pakistan's president, Pervaiz Musharraf, stated that Bugti was freely traveling between Kabul and Kandahar, raising money and planning attacks against Pakistani security forces. Musharraf repeatedly asked Hamid Karzai to hand over Bugti, which Karzai refused to do. In public, Afghan officials denied providing shelter to Bugti, but later, following a 2009 meeting between UN officials and Karzai, admitted that Bugti was indeed living in Kabul.[159] While speaking to The Guardian, Bugti admitted that he was leading the fight against Pakistan's army.[157] In 2010 he travelled to Switzerland and took up residence there. In 2017, his request for political asylum was rejected by Swiss authorities on the grounds that he had been linked to "incidents of terrorism, violence and militant activities".[160] The Chief of Frontier Corps troops in Balochistan, Major General Obaidullah Khan Khattak, said in June 2012 that "over 30 militant camps" had been established in Afghanistan. The camps receive support from Afghanistan and are used "to launch terrorist and anti-state activities in Balochistan".[161] Malik Siraj Akbar, a Washington-based analyst, states that Afghanistan has always been a relatively safe hideout for the Baloch nationalist militants.[162] On 25 December 2018, Aslam Baloch, alias Achu, and six other Baloch Liberation Army (BLA) commanders were killed in a suicide attack in Kandahar, Afghanistan.[163] A BLA spokesman confirmed their deaths.[163] Afghan officials stated that General Abdul Raziq Achakzai had housed Aslam Baloch and other separatist in Kandahar for years.[19][164] Moreover, the Afghan news channel TOLOnews reported that Aslam Baloch had been residing in Afghanistan since 2005.[165] According to Kandahar police chief Tadin Khan Achakzai, Aslam Baloch and Abdul Raziq Achakzai were 'close friends' and that 'Afghans will continue supporting separatist groups in their fight against the government of Pakistan'.[citation needed] On 23 May 2019, a similar attack took place in Aino Mina, Kandahar. Laghari Bugti and three other Baloch insurgents were killed, while a further twelve were injured.[166] Afghan provincial council member Yousaf Younasi .[167][168][169] said it was the second attack on Baloch Liberation Army members in recent years in Kandahar's posh Aino Mina residential area, and that Aslam Baloch, alias Achu, had been killed in the same area.[169] Baloch separatist leader Sher Muhammad Bugti confirmed that the attack had taken place, but said that target of the attack was a senior separatist leader, Shah Wali Bugti. He said that 'Baloch separatist are not safe in Kandahar and they have come under attack in three places over the past few months'.[166] Kandahar Police Chief Tadin Khan stated that the attack in Aino Mena took place outside the house of a former National Directorate of Security (NDS) official.[166] India Avinash Paliwal claims that in the 1970s, Junior level Indian intelligence officers were actively involved in operations in Balochistan. In a book he authored, Paliwal says these officers claim that "we gave Baloch everything, from money to guns, during the 1970s, everything".[170] He further states that, like Pakistan and India, Iraq and Iran were bitter rivals. As a result, Pakistan and Iran had developed closer relations with each other, while India and Iraq did likewise. Arming Baloch insurgents in Iran and Pakistan was in the interest of both Iraq and India. Militant groups like Pasthun Zalmay, which were made up of Baloch and Pashtun militants, were in direct contact with Kabul as well as with Indian and Iraqi missions in Afghanistan.[170] Pashtun Zalmay was responsible for a series of bomb blasts and other insurgent activities in Pakistan. As a consequence, relations between Iran and India deteriorated so much that in 1975, Indian diplomat Ram D. Sathe sent a secret letter to the Indian ambassador in Tehran in which he claimed that "it will be [only] a few more days before Iranians will stridently back Pakistanis (on Kashmir) ... Personally I do not think we should be under any illusion about this matter. I think Iranians will definitely back the Pakistanis".[170] Later on, in 2008, Paliwal claimed that if there had ever been an India-Afghanistan axis on Balochistan, it would likely have been in full play during this period. Afghan intelligence chief Amarullah Saleh and Indian diplomat Mayankote Kelath Narayanan were closely engaged with Baloch militants. Paliwal claims that even if Indian intelligence agencies denied direct support to Baloch insurgents, it was unlikely that they would have remained aloof from unfolding dynamics. Atul Khare, who observed these events on a regular basis, confirmed that India had contacts with Baloch militants. India had given (limited) protection to sons and grandsons of Baloch leaders, as well as Akbar Bugti. However, Khare claims that India did not help Akbar Bugti when he was killed during the fight with the Pakistan Army. In January 2009, Baloch militants continued their attacks against Pakistan. Both Pakistan and the United Kingdom believed that India was providing support to the Baloch militants.[170] The Indian newspaper The Hindu reported that Balochistan Liberation Army (BLA) commanders had, in the past, sought medical treatment in India's hospitals, often in disguise or with fake identities. In one such case, a militant commander in charge of Khuzdar city was based in Delhi for at least six months in 2017 while he underwent extensive treatment for kidney-related ailments.[171] Baloch militants' visits to India were often under assumed identities.[171] Similarly, another Baloch Liberation Army commander, Aslam Baloch (alias Achu), was also alleged to have visited India, where he met with people who were sympathetic to the Balochi cause.[171] Aslam Baloch was also alleged to have been treated at a hospital in New Delhi.[172] Jitendranand Saraswati, the founder of the Hind Baloch forum, claimed that Indians were actively contributing to the "freedom struggle of Balochistan".[173][174] According to Malik Siraj Akbar, a Baloch journalist living in exile, there is a consensus among Pakistani authorities that India is behind the insurgency in Balochistan, without feeling a need to share evidence of Indian involvement.[52] Pakistan has repeatedly accused India of supporting Baloch rebels, starting with an attack in Gwadar in 2004 in which three Chinese engineers were killed.[175][176][177] Wright-Neville writes that the Pakistani government and some Western observers[which?] believe that India secretly funds the Balochistan Liberation Army (BLA).[178] The former American Af-Pak envoy Richard Holbrooke said in 2011 that while Pakistan had repeatedly shared its allegations with Washington, it had failed to provide any evidence to the United States that India was involved with separatist movements in Balochistan. He did not consider Pakistan's accusations against India credible. Holbrooke also strongly rejected the allegation that India was using its consulates in Afghanistan to facilitate Baloch rebel activity, saying he had "no reason to believe Islamabad's charges", and that "Pakistan would do well to examine its own internal problems".[179] In 2009, a Washington-based think tank, the Center for International Policy, published a report stating that no evidence of Indian involvement in Balochistan had been provided by Pakistan, and that the allegations made by Pakistan lacked credibility, as Baloch rebels had been fighting with "ineffectual small arms".[180] India has categorically denied the allegations, pointing to Pakistan's failure to provide evidence.[176] Brahamdagh Bugti stated in a 2008 interview that he would accept aid from India, Afghanistan, and Iran in defending Balochistan.[181] When asked about the alleged links between his group and India, he is reported to have laughed and said, "Would our people live amid such miserable conditions if we enjoyed support from India?"[182] Baloch National Front secretary Karima Baloch claims that the allegations against India are an "excuse to label [the] ingrown Balochistan freedom movement as a proxy war to cover up the war crimes [the] Pakistani state has committed in Balochistan".[183] On 29 March 2016, the Pakistani government announced that it had apprehended a serving Indian naval officer, Kulbhushan Yadav, who, in a video interview, admitted that he had been tasked by the Research and Analysis Wing (R&AW) with destabilizing Pakistan.[184] The Indian government confirmed that Yadav was a former naval officer but denied that "this individual was involved in subversive activities in Pakistan at our [the Indian government's] behest",[185] and asserted that he operated "a legitimate business in Iran", from where he may have been "abducted" by Pakistan or, alternatively, by the extremist militant organization Jaishul Adil.[185][186][187] In 2016, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi criticized Pakistan and alleged human rights issues in Balochistan during an Independence Day speech.[188] Pakistan condemned Modi's remarks, calling it an attempted diversion from violence in Kashmir and a reiteration of Pakistani allegations vis-a-vis Indian involvement in Balochistan.[189] Modi's comments were welcomed by exiled Baloch separatist leaders[190] but sparked anti-India protests by political organizations and locals in Balochistan.[191] On 8 October 2015, the Indian newspaper The Hindu confirmed the presence of Balaach Pardili, a representative of the Balochistan Liberation Organisation (BLO), in India. Balaach Pardili hails from Afghanistan[170] and has been living in Delhi since 2009. Hyrbyair Marri, leader of the Baloch Liberation Army (BLA), had assigned Pardili the task of representing him in public events in India. Mr. Pardili appeared in public on 4 October 2015, under the banner of Bhagat Singh Kranti Sena (BSKS). His presence in India angered Pakistan. A Pakistani diplomat stated that in response to Pardili's presence in India, Pakistan could take up the issue in India's troubled North-Eastern region.[192] Naela Quadri Baloch and her son Mazdak Dilshad Baloch also live in India. Mazdak Dilshad Baloch organizes campaigns in India to support the Baloch cause,[193] while his mother, Naela Quadri Baloch, is trying to gain support for the establishment of a Baloch Government-in-exile in India.[194] However, Naela Quadri Baloch's proposal for a Government-in-exile has been strongly opposed by other Baloch separatist leaders, such as Brahamdagh Bugti, who claim that Naela Quadri does not represent the Baloch people.[195] On 7 May 2020, a retired Indian Army Major speaking on live television threatened to harm Pakistani soldiers in Balochistan.[196] Iraq On 10 February 1973, Pakistani police and paramilitary raided the Iraqi embassy in Islamabad, seizing a large cache of small arms, ammunition, grenades and other supplies, which were found in crates marked 'Foreign Ministry, Baghdad'. The ammunition and weaponry was believed to be destined for Baloch rebels. Pakistan responded by expelling and declaring persona non grata the Iraqi Ambassador Hikmat Sulaiman and other consular staff. In a letter to U.S. President Nixon on 14 February, Bhutto blamed India and Afghanistan, along with Iraq and the Soviet Union, for involvement in a "conspiracy ... [with] subversive and irredentist elements which seek to disrupt Pakistan's integrity."[197] Israel According to author Mark Perry, CIA memos revealed that in 2007 and 2008 Israeli agents posed as American spies and recruited Pakistani citizens to work for Jundallah (BLA affiliate) and carried out false flag operations against Iran.[198] The Baloch Society of North America (BSO-NA) was a Baloch lobbying group founded in 2004 in Washington, D.C.[199] by Dr. Wahid Baloch, a graduate of Bolan Medical College who had gone into self-imposed exile in the United States in 1992. Between 2004 and 2014, his group had been trying to gain American (as well as Israeli) support for the independence of Balochistan. He held meetings with several American Congressmen and allegedly had meetings with several CIA officials. Dr. Baloch had long claimed that the Pakistani government was committing acts of genocide against the Baloch people, and that Islamabad's aim was to plunder the province's vast mineral resources. In January 2014 he released a letter appealing to the United States and Israel for direct assistance in preventing an alleged "killing spree of Baloch people" by the "Pakistani army".[200] In May 2014, Dr. Baloch disbanded the BSO-NA, claiming that the War of Independence of Balochistan was actually a "war of independence of Khans, Nawabs and Sardars". He has since formed the Baloch Council of North America (BCN), which has dedicated itself to working with all democratic and nationalist forces in Pakistan to secure Baloch rights through democratic, nonviolent means, within the federation of Pakistan.[201] Soviet Union Pakistani scholar Syed F. Hasnat alleged that during the Soviet–Afghan War (1979–1989), the Soviet Union helped establish the Balochistan Liberation Army[202] which chiefly operates from southern Afghanistan.[178] United States The US State Department's official policy rejects secessionist forces in the Pakistani part of Balochistan, in support of the country's "unity and territorial integrity".[203] The US has, however, expressed concerns over human rights issues and urged parties in Pakistan to "work out their differences peaceably and through a valid political process."[203] In February 2010 a Jundullah leader captured by Iran, Abdulmalek Rigi, alleged on Iranian TV "that the US had promised to provide" Jundullah "with military equipment and a base in Afghanistan, near the Iranian border" for its fight against Iran. Rigi did not mention assistance in fighting Pakistan (which Iran accuses of backing the Jundullah, according to the BBC). The US has denied links with Jundullah, and according to the BBC, "it is not possible" to determine whether Abdolmalek Rigi "made the statement freely or under duress."[204] In late 2011, the Balochistan conflict became the focus of dialogue on a new US South Asia strategy brought up by some US congressmen, who said they were frustrated over Pakistan's alleged continued support to the Afghan Taliban, which they said led to the continuation of the War in Afghanistan. Although this alternative to the Obama Administration's Af-Pak policy has generated some interest, "its advocates clearly do not yet have broad support".[205] In the 1980s the CIA, the Iraqi Intelligence Service, Pakistani Sunni extremist group Sipah-e-Sahaba Pakistan, and the Mujahedin e-Kalq supported a Baluchi tribal uprising against Iran.[12] A February 2011 article by Selig S. Harrison of the Center for International Policy called for supporting "anti-Islamist forces" along the southern Arabian Sea coast, including "Baluch insurgents fighting for independence from Pakistan", as a means of weakening the "rising tide of anti-American passion" in Pakistan and heading off any alliance between Islamabad and Beijing – Pakistan having granted China access to a naval base at Gwadar.[206] United States of America has also designated Balochistan Liberation Army (BLA) as a global terrorist organization on 2 July 2019.[58] Decline in insurgency The separatist insurgency peaked after the death of nationalist leader Akbar Bugti in 2006. However, since 2013, the strength and intensity of insurgency has gradually declined. 2013 Elections resulted in the formation of coalition among Baloch and Pashtun ethno-nationalist political parties and they ruled the province for the next four years.[207] The decline of Marxist ideology is also one of the factors which limit the scope of the nationalist insurgency. The separatist groups follow Marxism. However, the ideology itself has died across the world. Hence, the founding fathers of the Baloch revolution are dead and there are no ideologies to succeed them.[208] Similarly, disagreement which most of the time lead to clashes among the separatist groups and attacks on pro-government leaders and politicians who are willing to take part in election has also contributed to the decline in separatist appeal.[207] Another factor which limits the scope of nationalist insurgency is the infighting among the separatist groups. Separatists have also been fighting among themselves. On 30 June 2015, Baloch Liberation Army (BLA) clashed with United Baloch Army (UBA), which resulted in death of twenty separatist on both sides.[209] Previously, BLA had attacked and captured one of the commander of UBA and killed four other members of UBA.[210] Moreover, the separatists have been losing ranks. Though the exact strength of Baloch Liberation Army (BLA) is not known, analyst believe that BLA now only has several hundred fighters based out of Afghanistan Balochistan borderland. The group is the only one to survive out of other separatist groups (UBA, BLF, BLUF and LeB) who once operated in the region.[208] Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on Phabricator and on MediaWiki.org. Total fatalities by year in the Balochistan insurgency since 2000, including civilians, security forces, terrorists, and insurgents; may not all sum up to total as an "unspecified" category also exists[211] Furthermore, Baloch separatist themselves stand accused of rights abuses.[212] Human Rights Watch (HRW) published a 40-page report which criticised Baloch nationalists of killing, threatening and harassing teachers.[213] Human Right Watch (HRW) has also held separatist responsible for attacks on schools across the province.[214] Another factor which limits the scope of nationalist insurgency is the lack of support from locals as majority of locals don't support separatist groups. Locals support political parties who use legislature to address their grievances.[215] Human rights issues Main article: Human rights violations in Balochistan Human Right Organisations have held Balochistan Liberation Army (BLA) responsible for ethnic cleansing in the province as Brahamdagh Bugti (alleged leader of BLA), during a TV interview on 15 April 2009, urged separatists to kill non-Baloch residing in Balochistan. His actions allegedly lead to the death of 500 non-Baloch citizens in the province.[216] According to The Economist around 800 non-Baloch settlers and Baloch have been killed by Baloch militant groups since 2006.[59][60][61] Similarly, Human Right Watch have also held Baloch militants groups like Baloch liberation army (BLA) and Balochistan Liberation United Front (BLUF) to be responsible for attacks on schools, teachers and students in the province.[217] As a result, many teachers have sought transfer to secure areas such as Quetta or have moved out of province entirely.[218] Separatist militants groups have also claimed responsibility for attacking and killing Journalists in the province.[219][220][221][222] Apart from Human Right Organisations, Baloch separatists themselves have accused each other of being involved in Human right violations.[212] In the period 2003 to 2012, it is estimated that 8000 people were abducted by Pakistani security forces in Balochistan.[59] In 2008 alone, more than 1100 Baloch people disappeared.[223] There have also been reports of torture.[224] An increasing number of bodies "with burn marks, broken limbs, nails pulled out, and sometimes with holes drilled in their heads" are being found on roadsides as the result of a "kill and dump" campaign allegedly conducted by Pakistani security forces, particularly Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) and the Frontier Corps (FC).[225][226] A 2013 report from the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan identified ISI and Frontier Corps as the perpetrators for many disappearances, while noting a more cooperative stance from these agencies in recent years as perceived by local police forces.[227] The Pakistan Rangers are also alleged to have committed a vast number of human rights violations in the region.[228] No one has been held responsible for the crimes.[225] However, Pakistani security officials have rejected all the allegations made against them. Major General Obaid Ullah Khan claim that Baloch militants are using Frontier Corps (FC) uniform to kidnap people and malign the good name of Frontier Corps. Baloch militants have also been found using military uniform which resembles the one used by Frontier Corps while carrying out their activities.[229] A senior Pakistani provincial security official claims that missing person figures are 'exaggerated', that 'in Balochistan, insurgents, immigrants who fled to Europe and even those who have been killed in military operations are declared as missing persons'.[230] Reports have shown that many people have fled the province to seek asylum in other countries because of the unrest caused by separatist militants. Militant groups like Lashkar-e-Jhangvi have systematically targeted Shia Muslims in Balochistan, with about 600 being killed in attacks in recent years.[59][231][232][233] During a camp at Broken Chair, Geneva, Baloch Republican Party (BRP) leader Sher Baz Bugti alleged that Baloch youth, women and children were kept in "torture cells". BRP chief Brahumdagh Bugti called upon human rights organisation, including the United Nations, to take steps to stop the alleged "Baloch genocide".[234] Sunni extremism and religious persecution of Zikris The activities of terrorist organisations such as Lashkar-i-Jhangvi and Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan, have produced a surge in religious extremism in Balochistan. Hindus, Shias (including Hazaras) and Zikris have been targeted, resulting in the migration of over 300,000 of them from Baluchistan.[235][236][237][238] Baloch Liberation Front (BLF) and Baloch Liberation Army (BLA) have also targeted Zikris in the province.[239][240] Supreme Court investigation There are more than 5,000 cases of 'forced disappearances' in Balochistan.[241] Many are innocent and stuck in Pakistan's slow court system whilst others are in prison awaiting charges on a range of things such as gun smuggling and robbery.[242] The chief justice of an apex court of Pakistan asked about the situation and said it was going out of control in Balochistan.[241] The Supreme Court is currently investigating the "missing persons" and issued an arrest warrant for the former Military Dictator Pervez Musharaff. Furthermore, the Chief Justice of the court said the military must act under the government's direction and follow well-defined parameters set by the Constitution.[243] Missing people found In June 2011, the prime minister was informed that 41 missing people had returned to their homes, false cases against 38 had been withdrawn and several others had been traced. The PM urged police to trace the missing people and help them to return to their homes.[244] In 2011, government established a commission which registered 5,369 missing person's complaints. The commission claims to have traced more than 3,600 people.[245] In October 2018, Balochistan National Party (Mengal) (BNP-M) claimed that around 300 missing Baloch persons had returned their homes.[246] Similarly in January 2019, Voice of Baloch Missing People (VBMP) decided to end their suspend their protest after around dozens of returned to their homes. VBMP gave a list of 110 missing people which the VBMP expects the government recover them within two months.[247] On 29 June 2019, around 200 missing Baloch people were recovered according to Balochistan Home Minister Mir Ziaullah Langove. According to Mir Ziaullah Langove VBMP had provided provincial authorities a list of 250 missing people and that the commission on enforced disappearances was also hearing about 40 cases of missing persons.[248] Supreme Court orders The Supreme Court apex court headed by Justice Iqbal decided ordered the government to the grant of subsistence allowance to the affected families. Justice Iqbal advised families not to lose hope. He said the issue of missing persons had become a chronic problem and, therefore, the Commission of Inquiry on Enforced Disappearances, constituted on the orders of the apex court, should be made permanent.[249] Effect of and remedies for the insurgency Development issues The government of Pakistan has repeatedly stated its intention to bring industrialisation to Balochistan, and continues to claim that progress has been made by way of the "Aghaz-e-Haqooq-e-Balochistan" package of political and economic reforms issued in 2009.[250] This is challenged by Baloch nationalist groups, who argue the benefits of these policies have not accrued to native Baloch residents of the province.[citation needed] Baloch nationalist groups continue to highlight the extraction of natural resources, especially natural gas, from the province, without discernible economic benefit to the Baloch people.[citation needed] Nonetheless, the government of Pakistan continues to insist that industrial zones are planned along the new Gawadar-Karachi highway. According to the government, this development is envisaged to bring accelerated progress in the future for the Baloch.[citation needed] In February 2006 three Chinese engineers assisting in the construction of a local cement factory were shot and killed in an attack on their automobile,[251] while another 11 injured in a car bomb attack by BLA.[citation needed] China recalled its engineers working on the project in Balochistan.[citation needed] The progress in the hydro-power sector has been slow since then. The people of the region have largely maintained a nomadic lifestyle marked by poverty and illiteracy.[252] The indigenous people are continuously threatened by war and other means of oppression, which have resulted in the loss of thousands of innocent lives over many years.[253][254][255] Presently, according to Amnesty International, Baluch activists, politicians and student leaders are among those that are being targeted in forced disappearances, abductions, arbitrary arrests and cases of torture and other ill-treatment.[256] Economic effects and shortage of skilled workers and goods The chief minister of the province has said "A large number of professors, teachers, engineers, barbers and masons are leaving the province for fear of attacks, This inhuman act will push the Baloch nation at least one century back. The Baloch nation will never forgive whoever is involved in target killings... He said the government has approved three university campuses, three medical colleges and hospitals for Turbat, Mastung, Naseerabad and Loralai districts but there was shortage of teachers in the area".[257] Rice traders from Punjab have also been killed in target killing, this has resulting in higher prices of foods items in Balochistan. Almost 40 people of non-Balochi ethnic groups were killed in 2009.[45] MPA personal development budget Funding for Balochistan's annual development programme in 2010–11 was R27 billion, as compared to R13 billion in 2007–08. This allowed each Member of the Provincial Assembly of Balochistan a personal development budget of 180 million for his or her constituency,[citation needed] with the figure increasing to 250 million in 2011–2012. However, critics argue that development funding is not a fix for deep political issues, and that MPAs have no incentive to find political solutions with the insurgents when they believe they will receive more funding as long as the insurgency continues. There have also been allegations that MPAs are exploiting the PSDP programme to arrange kickback schemes and other forms of corruption.[258] Gadani Energy Corridor Four coal-fired power plants will be built Gadani, creating a power corridor in Balochistan based on the Houston Energy Corridor. This was announced by Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif during a visit to the region. The Gadani Power Park and it is expected to generate 5200 MW.[259][260] Some nationalist groups objected to the project, saying they had not been consulted and instead favored expanding access to electricity in the province rather than increasing capacity.[citation needed] Farm subsidy The Federal government announced it would transfer Rs4 billion subsidy to Provincial Government to be passed onto farmers in Balochistan to promote for tube-wells. The Provincial Government announced it would spend further Rs3 billion to support the Federal Programme.[244] However, high levels of corruption amongst civil servants and senior ministers may mean the common man only gets partial benefit.[citation needed] Army Education City at Sui In January 2011 then Chief of Army Staff of Pakistan Army, General Ashfaq Parvez Kayani, announced the establishment of Education City in Sui. The military said it had built colleges in Balochistan, such as Balochistan Institute of Technical Education (BITE) and the Gwadar Institute of Technical Education (GITE) with approximately 1,673 graduates. Around 22,786 Baloch students attend military-run educational institutions.[261] See also Baluchistan (Chief Commissioner's Province) Baloch nationalism Las Bela Kharan Khanate of Kalat Baluchistan States Union Human rights violations in Balochistan Forced disappearance in Pakistan Balochistan Liberation Army Notes Researcher Mickey Kupecz credits the political domination of Pakistan by the military to the tendency to respond to the insurgency with "overwhelming force" rather than with a political approach. "That the Baloch issue has been handled militarily rather than politically makes sense given the lack of civilian control over the country. 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(January 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Unrest simmers in Pakistan province The real Balochistan by Sana Baloch Balochistan in focus by Rahimullah Yusufzai Ethnicity and Provincialism in Pakistan by Adnan Syed. vte Ongoing armed conflicts vte Baloch nationalism vte Iran Iran–Pakistan relations Pakistan vte Afghanistan Afghanistan–Pakistan relations Pakistan vte Separatist movements in Pakistan vte Post–Cold War conflicts in Asia Categories: Insurgency in BalochistanGovernment of Liaquat Ali KhanGovernment of Yousaf Raza GillaniGovernment of Shaukat AzizHistory of BalochistanImran Khan administrationNawaz Sharif administrationPolitics of Balochistan, PakistanProvincial disputes in PakistanProxy warsSeparatism in Pakistan20th-century conflicts20th century in Afghanistan20th century in Iran20th century in Pakistan21st-century conflicts21st century in Afghanistan21st century in Iran21st century in PakistanFrontier Corps Balochistan (South) This page was last edited on 12 August 2024, at 21:42 (UTC). 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